Monroe L.

Weber-Shirk
School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering
Aqueducts
Where Are We?
We estimated the land area needed to
supply water to NYC
How large a pipe is needed to carry the
water to NYC?
We will look at the construction of the Catskill
Aqueduct
We will figure out how large a pipe is needed to
carry the water from the Delaware system


Aqueducts
How does NYC get the water from upstate
reservoirs down to the city?
Pressurized Tunnels
Deep pressurized, bedrock tunnel
water flows under pressure just like in the pipes in
your apartment
Grade Tunnels
Not pressurized
water surface is in the tunnel
water flow is similar to water flow in a stream

Supply Aqueducts and Tunnels
Shandaken Tunnel (1928)
Catskill Aqueduct (1915)
Delaware Aqueduct (1944)
Neversink Tunnel (1950)
East Delaware Tunnel (1954)
West Delaware Tunnel (1967)
Types of Aqueducts
Following natural surface
open channel
cut-and-cover
Above natural surface
embankment
viaduct
Below natural surface
grade tunnel
Following or above
natural surface
wooden pipe
reinforced concrete pipe
steel pipe
plastic pipe
Below natural surface
pressure tunnel
On Hydraulic Grade Below Hydraulic Grade
Profile of Catskill Aqueduct
Small Scale profile of Catskill Aqueduct, Ashokan
Reservoir to Silver Lake Reservoir. (White p. 46)
Cross-section of Cut-and-Cover
Aqueduct
Construction of cover embankment. Rock was usually excavated to a 6 on 1 slope. Minimum
thickness of concrete along sides 20 ins., but usually thicker owing to disintegrated condition of
surface rocks. (White p. 50)
Cut and Cover
Delaware Aqueduct
10 km
Flow Profile for Delaware
Aqueduct
Rondout Reservoir
(EL. 256 m)
West Branch Reservoir
(EL. 153.4 m)
70.5 km
(El. -183 m)
Sea Level
(Designed for 39 m
3
/s)
Hudson River crossing
Valves to control flow?
Size of the Delaware Aqueduct
How big does the tunnel have to be?
What variables do you think are important?
Simplified Delaware Aqueduct
Rondout Reservoir
(EL. 102.6 m wrt West Branch)
West Branch Reservoir
70.5 km
(Designed for 890 mgd
or 39 m
3
/s)
Hydraulic Grade Line:

L
h
f
= HGL of slope
f
h
L
level to which water will rise
How high will the water rise?
Darcy-Weisbach Formula
Energy loss due to _______ resistance to
flow
f = friction factor [dimensionless]
L = length of pipe [L]
D = diameter of pipe [L]
g = acceleration due to gravity [L/T
2
]
V = average velocity of water in pipe [L/T]
h
f
= loss of head [L]
2
f
2
f
L V
h
D g
=
viscous
2
f
2
f
L V
gh
D
| |
=
|
\ .
mechanical
Darcy-Weisbach Equation
(Function of Flow)
2
f
2
f
L V
h
D g
=
2
2 5
8
f
f
LQ
h
g D t
=
0.2
2
2
8
f
f
LQ
D
g h t
| |
=
|
|
\ .
Darcy-Weisbach
Solve for D
2
4
D
Q
V
t
=
Darcy-Weisbach Equation:
What About f?
f is a function of (V*D/) ______________
f is a function of pipe ___________
Take Fluid Mechanics (and Hydraulic Engineering)
to learn how to use this equation...
0.2
2
2
8
f
f
LQ
D
g h t
| |
=
|
|
\ .
roughness
Reynolds number
D
c
0.01
0.1
1E+03 1E+04 1E+05 1E+06 1E+07 1E+08
R
f
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r

laminar
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0.001
0.0008
0.0004
0.0002
0.0001
0.00005
smooth
f
D
c
Capillary tube or 24 ft diameter tunnel
Where is temperature?
Where do you specify the fluid?
Frictional Losses in Straight Pipes
Moody Diagram
0.0112
Swamee-Jain pipe size equation
04 . 0
2 . 5
4 . 9
75 . 4
2
25 . 1
66 . 0
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
f f
gh
L
Q
gh
LQ
D v c
?
m 102.6 h
m/s 9.8 g
m 70,500 L
/s m 39 Q
/s m 1.007x10
f
2
3
2 6
=
=
=
=
=
=

c
v
Do the units work? _________
Yes!
Moody + Darcy Weisbach =Swamee-Jain
0.01
1E+03 1E+04 1E+05 1E+06 1E+07 1E+08
R
f r i c t i o n f a c t o r
laminar
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.015
0.01 0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0.001 0.0008
0.0004
0.0002
0.0001
0.00005
smooth
f f
D
c
D
c
2
f
2
f
L V
h
D g
=
04 . 0
2 . 5
4 . 9
75 . 4
2
25 . 1
66 . 0
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
f f
gh
L
Q
gh
LQ
D v c
Pipe Roughness
pipe material pipe roughness c (mm)
glass, drawn brass, copper 0.0015
commercial steel or wrought iron 0.045
asphalted cast iron 0.12
galvanized iron 0.15
cast iron 0.26
concrete 0.18-0.6
rivet steel 0.9-9.0
corrugated metal 45.0
Watch these units!
Delaware Tunnel Diameter
viscosity 1.01E-06
Q 39
L 70500
h
f
102.6
roughness 0.0006
g 9.8
D 4.12
m
2
/s
m
3
/s
m
m
m
m/s
2

m
The actual diameter!
04 . 0
2 . 5
4 . 9
75 . 4
2
25 . 1
66 . 0
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
f f
gh
L
Q
gh
LQ
D v c
Which term
dominates?
Swamee-Jain Head Loss
Equation
Darcy-Weisbach equation
2
2 5
8
f
f
LQ
h
g D t
=
2
0.9
0.25
f
5.74
log
3.7D R
c
=
(
| |
+
|
(
\ .

v
VD
R =
Swamee-Jain equation for f
Reynolds number
Calculate head loss given a new flow
Energy loss measured as lost potential energy
Tunnel Explorations
How long does it take water to get from Rondout
to West Branch (70.5 km)?


What is the Reynolds number?


What happens to head loss in the tunnel if the flow
rate is decreased?
D m 412 .
2
2
13.33
4
D
A m
t
= = V
Q
A
m s
m
m s
39
1333
2 93
3
2
/
.
. / t
L
V
m
m s
hr
70 500
2 93
6 7
,
. /
.
R
VD

2
2
2 5
8
f
f
LQ
h Q
g D t
=
Where does excess PE go?

2 93 412
1 10
12 10
6 2
6
. / .
/
m s m
m s
a fa f
6 2
1 10 / x m s n
-
=
0.01
1E+03 1E+04 1E+05 1E+06 1E+07 1E+08
R
f r i c t i o n f a c t o r
laminar
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.015
0.01 0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0.001 0.0008
0.0004
0.0002
0.0001
0.00005
smooth
f f
D
c
D
c
Solve the tunnel size using
Moody?
0.01
1E+03 1E+04 1E+05 1E+06 1E+07 1E+08
R
f
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r
laminar
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0.001
0.0008
0.0004
0.0002
0.0001
0.00005
smooth
f f
D
c
D
c
6
12 10 R =
0.0006
0.00015
4.12
m
D m
e
= =
f 0.0112 =
0.2
2
2
8
f
f
LQ
D
g h t
| |
=
|
|
\ .
0.01
1E+03 1E+04 1E+05 1E+06 1E+07 1E+08
R
f r i c t i o n f a c t o r
laminar
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.015
0.01 0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0.001 0.0008
0.0004
0.0002
0.0001
0.00005
smooth
f f
D
c
D
c
Summary
Catskill and Delaware water is transported
to NYC without use of pumps
We can calculate the size of a tunnel based
on the required flow rate
The diameter of the tunnel, surface
roughness, length, and elevation drop
determine the maximum flow rate
What is a mgd?
Million Gallons per Day
43.8L/s
sec 86,400
day 1
gallon 1
L 3.7854
day
gallons 1,000,000
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
Swamee-Jain Excel Equation
=0.66*('roughness'^1.25*('L'*'Q'*'Q'/g/'hf')^4.75
+'viscosity'*'Q'^9.4*('L'/g/'hf')^5.2)^0.04
04 . 0
2 . 5
4 . 9
75 . 4
2
25 . 1
66 . 0
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
f f
gh
L
Q
gh
LQ
D v c
Construction of
Cut-and-cover
Aqueduct
Shows steel form and
carriage; also locomotive
crane used to place
concrete, move outside
forms, and assist in
excavation. (White p.
220)
Electric
carriage for
moving
interior forms
Carriage and upper jacks
are motor driven. Side
jacks and turntable hand
driven. (White p. 221)
Traveling Aqueduct
Building Plant
Traveling crushing concrete, mixing, and form-moving plant
completing last section of aqueduct adjoining shaft 1 of contract 12.
This plant built 7500 feet of aqueduct in two seasons. (White p. 223)
Cut-and-cover Arch
This section was
cast between steel
forms with steel plate in
expansion joints at 60-ft
intervals. Steel plates 6 x
3/8 were places in both
invert and arch joints to act
as water stops. (White p.
236)
Steel Forms and Locomotive Crane
Continuous method was here used, forms being used telescoping.
60- to 75-foot section concreted daily. (White p. 374)
Cut-and-cover
Aqueduct on
Curve
Arch cast with aid of
steel forms built
wedge-shaped in 5-
foot lengths to 200
feet radius. Section
17 feet high by 17
feet 6 inches wide.
(White p. 237)
Peak Tunnel
(Grade Tunnel)
Ready for
Concrete Lining
Footing courses are in
place. Center track for
hauling material to upper
portion of contract 11.
Tunnel is 3450 feet long
on tangent.(White p. 243)
Completed Pressure Tunnel Lining
Note smooth finish and close joints at invert and springing line.
Concrete surface very dry. (White p. 331)
Hunters Brook
Steel Pipe
Siphon
Laying of steel pipe on
concrete pedestal blocks.
Later pipe was filled with
water, covered with
concrete and earth and
lined with 2 ins. of mortar.
(White p. 467)
Hudson River Crossing
Section/Homework Comments
How can you meter the alum into your
filtration plant? (remember the peristaltic
pump limitations)
What range of alum dosage should you be
able to provide?
What happened to the stream flow below
the reservoir in 1978?
Stream flow below reservoir
Mean Daily Streamflow
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1000
1
/
1
/
1
9
4
2
1
/
1
/
1
9
4
4
1
/
1
/
1
9
4
6
1
/
1
/
1
9
4
8
1
/
1
/
1
9
5
0
1
/
1
/
1
9
5
2
1
/
1
/
1
9
5
4
1
/
1
/
1
9
5
6
1
/
1
/
1
9
5
8
1
/
1
/
1
9
6
0
1
/
1
/
1
9
6
2
1
/
1
/
1
9
6
4
1
/
1
/
1
9
6
6
1
/
1
/
1
9
6
8
1
/
1
/
1
9
7
0
1
/
1
/
1
9
7
2
1
/
1
/
1
9
7
4
1
/
1
/
1
9
7
6
1
/
1
/
1
9
7
8
1
/
1
/
1
9
8
0
1
/
1
/
1
9
8
2
1
/
1
/
1
9
8
4
1
/
1
/
1
9
8
6
1
/
1
/
1
9
8
8
1
/
1
/
1
9
9
0
Date
F
l
o
w

R
a
t
e

(
m
3
/
s
)
Why does low flow rate appear to have regular pattern?
Note frequency of flows over 10 m
3
/s
What causes flows over 10 m
3
/s?
Why did low flow rate increase in 1978?
Which season are the higher controlled flows in?
How do you explain occasional low flows after 1978?