theories of motivation

early approaches to motivation

The scientific mgmt approach to motivation

By F.W. TAYLOR( FATHER OF SCIENTIFIC MGMT) Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856 1917) put forward the idea that workers are
motivated mainly by pay. His Theory of Scientific Management argued the following: Therefore managers should break down production into a series of small tasks efficiently as possible on one set task.

Workers do not naturally enjoy work and so need close supervision and control. Workers should then be given appropriate training and tools so they can work as
Workers are then paid according to the number of items they produce in a set period of time- piece-rate pay.

As a result workers are encouraged to work hard and maximize their productivity.

 LILLIAM M. GILBRETH determined that

promotions, higher pay, shorter hours and holidays are motivators, especially when tailored to individual needs.

Behavioral mgmt approach to mgmt.

By MAYO & McGregor.

Mayo
Elton Mayo (1880 1949) believed that workers are not just concerned with money
but could be better motivated by having their social needs met whilst at work (something that Taylor ignored)..

Mayo conducted a series of experiments at the Hawthorne factory of the Western

Electric Company in Chicago He isolated two groups of women workers and studied the effect on their productivity levels of changing factors such as lighting and working conditions. What he discovered surprised him: whatever the change in lighting or working conditions, the productivity levels of the workers improved or remained the same. From this Mayo concluded that workers are best motivated by: consulted over the experiments and also had the opportunity to give feedback) responded to the increased level of attention they were receiving) work in teams)

Better communication between managers and workers ( Hawthorne workers were

Greater manager involvement in employees working lives ( Hawthorne workers

Working in groups or teams. ( Hawthorne workers did not previously regularly

Douglas McGregor
Theory X and Theory Y are theories of
human motivation created and developed by Douglas McGregor Theory Y In this theory management assumes employees may be ambitious, selfmotivated, and exercise self-control. It is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work duties

 Theory X In this theory, management assumes

employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can. They inherently dislike work. Because of this, workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems of controls developed.

Maslow
Abraham Maslow (1908 1970) along with Frederick
Herzberg (1923-) introduced the Neo-Human Relations School in the 1950s, which focused on the psychological needs of employees. Maslow put forward a theory that there are five levels of human needs which employees need to have fulfilled at work. All of the needs are structured into a hierarchy and only once a lower level of need has been fully met, would a worker be motivated by the opportunity of having the next need up in the hierarchy satisfied. A business should therefore offer different incentives to workers in order to help them fulfill each need in turn and progress up the hierarchy.

Herzberg
Frederick Herzberg (1923-) had close links with Maslow and believed in a two-factor
theory of motivation. He argued that there were certain factors that a business could introduce that would directly motivate employees to work harder (Motivators). However there were also factors that would de-motivate an employee if not present but would not in themselves actually motivate employees to work harder (Hygiene factors) For example a worker will only turn up to work if a business has provided a reasonable level of pay and safe working conditions but these factors will not make him work harder at his job once he is there. Some of the methods managers could use to achieve this are: Job enlargement workers being given a greater variety of tasks to perform (not necessarily more challenging) which should make the work more interesting. Job enrichment - involves workers being given a wider range of more complex, interesting and challenging tasks surrounding a complete unit of work. This should give a greater sense of achievement. Empowerment means delegating more power to employees to make their own decisions over areas of their working life.

ERG Theory of Motivation - Clayton P. Alderfer

In 1969, Clayton Alderfer's revision of
Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, called the ERG Theory (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth), and was created to align Maslow's motivation theory more closely with empirical research.

 Existence needs include a persons

physiological and physically related safety needs, such as the need for food, shelter, and safe working conditions. Relatedness needs include a persons need to interact with other people, receive public recognition, and feel secure around people (i.e., interpersonal safety). Growth needs consist of a persons selfesteem through personal achievement as well as the concept of self-actualization presented in Maslows model.

McClellands Theory of Needs

David McClellands research indicates that individuals are motivated based on three needs: Need for achievement (NAch): The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. Need for power (NPower): The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. Need for affiliation (NAff): The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. Unlike Maslow, McClelland did not differentiate between any certain transition among the needs. He indicates that some people have higher levels of one need than others.

Process theory of motivation

Vroom model of expectancy theory

 Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from

conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. The key elements to this theory are referred to as Expectancy (E), Instrumentality (I), and Valence (V). Critical to the understanding of the theory is the understanding that each of these factors represents a belief. The Expectancy Theory of Victor Vroom deals with motivation and management. Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

 The expectancy theory says that

individuals have different sets of goals and can be motivated if they believe that:
There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance, Favorable performance will result in a desirable reward, The reward will satisfy an important need, The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile.

Porter and Lawler

The Porter-Lawler expectancy model is a model
of work motivation. It is an extension of an earlier expectancy model developed by Victor Vroom in 1964. Consistent with the Vroom expectancy model, the Porter-Lawler model proposes that employee motivation depends upon (1) the degree to which employees value certain rewards and (2) employees' belief that their efforts will result in their receiving these rewards.

 Unlike the Vroom model, however, the Porter-Lawler

model suggests that individuals' abilities and role perceptions moderate the relationship between effort and performance. Furthermore, the Porter-Lawler model emphasizes that employees' perception of the fairness of rewards affects the relationship between rewards they receive and satisfaction with their work. The PorterLawler expectancy model is one of the better known models of work motivation and has generated a considerable amount of research and debate.

Adams equity theory

John Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioral psychologist, put

forward his Equity Theory on job motivation in 1963. Adam called personal efforts and rewards and other similar 'give and take' issues at work respectively 'inputs' and 'outputs'. Inputs are logically what we give or put into our work. Outputs are everything we take out in return. These terms help emphasis that what people put into their work includes many factors besides working hours, and that what people receive from their work includes many things aside from money. Adams used the term 'referent' others to describe the reference points or people with whom we compare our own situation, which is the pivotal part of the theory.

Leadership communication
Communication is the process whereby
information is imparted by a sender to a receiver via a medium. Communication requires that all parties have an area of communicative commonality. There are auditory means, such as speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal, physical means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, or the use of writing.

 No one would talk much in society if they knew

how often they misunderstood others. - Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe Many of the problems that occur in an organization are the direct result of people failing to communicate. Faulty communication causes the most problems. It leads to confusion and can cause a good plan to fail. Communication is the exchange and flow of information and ideas from one person to another. It involves a sender transmitting an idea to a receiver. Effective communication occurs only if the receiver understands the exact information or idea that the sender intended to transmit.

Nonverbal communication (NVC)

Nonverbal communication (NVC) is usually understood as the process of

communication through sending and receiving wordless messages. NVC can be communicated through gesture; body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact; object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture; symbols and infographics. Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the use of emoticons. However, much of the study of nonverbal communication has focused on face-to-face interaction, where it can be classified into three principal areas: environmental conditions where communication takes place, the physical characteristics of the communicators, and behaviors of communicators during interaction.[1]

Paralanguage
Paralanguage (sometimes called vocalics) is the study of
nonverbal cues of the voice. Paralanguage may change the meaning of words. The voice set is the context in which the speaker is speaking. This can include the situation, gender, mood, age and a person's culture. The voice qualities are volume, pitch, tempo, rhythm, articulation, resonance, nasality, and accent. They give each individual a unique "voice print". Vocalization consists of three subsections: characterizers, qualifiers and segregates. Characterizers are emotions expressed while speaking, such as laughing, crying, and yawning. A voice qualifier is the style of delivering a message - for example, yelling "Hey stop that!", as opposed to whispering "Hey stop that". Vocal segregates such as "uh-huh" notify the speaker that the listener is listening.

Inter-actional model of communication

The interaction communication model is a model
representing how communication works when one person speaks and then the other person speaks. There is no feedback in between speaking. For example, a presidential debate. The question is asked of the president elects and that president elect answers. The person asking the question does not provide any sort of feedback for what the president elect has said.

transactional communication model

The Transaction Model is a model that
sees communication or negotiation of meaning in two or more parties responding to their environment and each other

3 kinds of noise under this model

Internal noise External noise Semantic noise