Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering

1
Mechanical Properties of Metals

How do metals respond to external loads?

Stress and Strain
Tension
Compression
Shear
Torsion
Elastic deformation

Plastic Deformation
Yield Strength
Tensile Strength
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Chapter 6 Outline
Not tested: true stress-true stain relationships, resilience, details
of the different types of hardness tests, variability of material
properties
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
2
How materials deform as a function of
applied load
Testing methods and language for
mechanical properties of materials.
Introduction
S
t
r
e
s
s
,

o

(
M
P
a
)

Strain, c (mm / mm)
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
3
Types of Loading
Tensile
Compressive
Shear
Torsion
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
4
Stress
(For Tension and Compression)
To compare specimens , the load is
calculated per unit area.

Stress: = F / A
o

F: is load
A
0
: cross-sectional area



A
0
perpendicular to F before
application of the load.
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
5
Strain
(For Tension and Compression)

Strain: = l / l
o
( 100 %)
l: change in length
l
o
: original length.


Stress / strain = /


Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
6
Shear and Torsion
Shear stress: = F / A
o

F is applied parallel to upper and
lower faces each having area A
0
.
Shear strain: = tan

( 100 %)
is strain angle
Shear Torsion
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
7
Torsion
Torsion: like shear.

Load: applied torque, T
Strain: angle of twist, .

Shear
Torsion
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
8
Stress-Strain Behavior
(Tension)
Elastic Plastic
S
t
r
e
s
s

Strain
Elastic deformation
Reversible:
( For small strains)
Stress removed
material returns to
original size

Plastic deformation
Irreversible:
Stress removed
material does not return
to original dimensions.
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
9
Elastic deformation
E = Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity
(same units as o, N/m
2
or Pa)
Gives Hooke's law for Tensile Stress
S
t
r
e
s
s

Strain
Load
Slope = modulus of
elasticity E
Unload
= E
Higher E higher stiffness
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
10
Nonlinear elastic behavior
In some materials (many polymers,
concrete...), elastic deformation is not
linear, but it is still reversible.
Definitions of E
Ao/Ac = tangent modulus at o
2

Ao/Ac = secant modulus
between origin and o
1

Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
11
Elastic Deformation: Atomic scale
Chapter 2: Potentials and Force

High
modulus
Low
modulus
E ~ (dF/dr) at r
o
F= (sign) dV/dr
E~ curvature of potential
at equilibrium, r
0

Separation, r
Weakly
bonded
Strongly
bonded
F
o
r
c
e
,

F

Attractive is
positive here
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
12
Anelasticity
(time dependence of elastic deformation)


Have assumed elastic deformation is time
independent
(applied stress produces instantaneous
strain)

Elastic deformation takes time; can
continue even after load release.
This behavior is known as anelasticity.

Small effect in metals; can be significant
for polymers (visco-elastic).
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
13
Poissons ratio

Tension shrink laterally
Compression bulge.


Ratio of lateral to axial strain called
Poisson's ratio u.
Unloaded
Loaded
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
14
Poissons ratio

z
y
z
x
c
c
=
c
c
= v
u dimensionless.

Sign:
lateral strain opposite to longitudinal
strain

Theoretical value:
for isotropic material: 0.25

Maximum value: 0.50,
Typical value: 0.24 - 0.30
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
15
Shear Modulus
Z
o

Ay
t
Unloaded
Loaded
Shear stress to shear strain:
t = G ,

= tanu = Ay / z
o

G is Shear Modulus (Units: N/m
2
)
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
16
Elastic Modulus
Poissons Ratio
and
Shear Modulus
For isotropic material:

E = 2G(1+u) G ~ 0.4E


Single crystals are usually elastically
anisotropic

Elastic behavior varies with
crystallographic direction.

Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
17
Plastic deformation
(Tension)
Plastic deformation:
stress not proportional to strain
deformation is not reversible
deformation occurs by breaking and re-
arrangement of atomic bonds (crystalline
materials by motion of defects)
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
18
Tensile properties: Yielding
Elastic Plastic
S
t
r
e
s
s

Strain
Yield strength: o
y

Permanent strain= 0.002
Yield point: P
Where strain deviates from
being proportional to stress
(the proportional limit)
A measure of resistance
to plastic deformation
P
o
y
0.002
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
19
Tensile properties: Yielding
Stress
Strain
For a low-carbon steel, the stress vs. strain
curve includes both an upper and lower
yield point.
The yield strength is defined in this case as
the average stress at the lower yield point.
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
20
Tensile Strength
Tensile strength =
max. stress
(~ 100 - 1000 MPa)
If stress maintained specimen will break
Fracture
Strength
Necking
S
t
r
e
s
s
,

o

Strain, c
Yield stress, o
y
, usually more important than
tensile strength. Once yield stress has been passed,
structure has deformed beyond acceptable limits.
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
21
Tensile properties: Ductility
percent elongation
or
percent reduction in
area
Ductility Deformation at Fracture
100
l
l l
EL %
0
0 f

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
100
A
A A
RA %
0
f 0

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
22
Mechanical Properties of Metals
Yield strength and tensile strength vary
with thermal and mechanical treatment,
impurity levels, etc.
Variability related to behavior of
dislocations (Elastic moduli are relatively
insensitive)
Yield and tensile strengths and modulus of
elasticity: Decrease with increasing
temperature.
Ductility increases with temperature.
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
23
Toughness
Toughness: ability to absorb energy up to
fracture (Area under the strain-stress curve
up to fracture)
Units: the energy per unit volume, e.g. J/m
3

Can be measured by an impact test (Chapter 8).
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
24
True Stress and Strain
True stress: load divided by actual area in the
necked-down region, continues to rise to the point
of fracture, in contrast to the engineering stress.
o = F/A
o
c = (l
i
-l
o
/l
o
)
o
T
= F/A
i
c
T
= ln(l
i
/l
o
)
True Strain
True Stress
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
25
Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation
Deformed plastically, stress released, material has
permanent strain.

If stress is reapplied, material again responds
elastically at the beginning up to a new yield point
that is higher than the original yield point.

Elastic strain before reaching the yield point is
called elastic strain recovery.
o
y

o
y

Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
26
Hardness (I)
Hardness measure of materials resistance
to localized plastic deformation
(e.g. dent or scratch)

Mohs scale ability of a material to scratch
another material: from 1 (softest = talc) to 10
(hardest = diamond).
Variety of hardness tests
(Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, etc.).
Small indenter (sphere, cone, or
pyramid) forced into surface of
material under controlled
magnitude and rate of loading.
Depth or size of indentation is
measured.

Tests are approximate, but
popular because they are easy and
non-destructive (except for the
small dent).
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
27
Hardness (II)
Tensile strength and hardness degree of
resistance to plastic deformation.
Hardness proportional to tensile strength
Proportionality constant depends on material.
T
e
n
s
i
l
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
M
P
a
)

T
e
n
s
i
l
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
1
0
3

p
s
i
)


Brinell hardness number
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
28
What are the limits of safe deformation?
Design stress:
o
d
= No
c
: o
c
= maximum anticipated stress,
N the design factor > 1.

Make sure o
d
< o
y
, safe or working stress:
o
w
= o
y
/N where N is factor of safety > 1.
For practical engineering design,
the yield strength is usually the
important parameter
Strain
S
t
r
e
s
s

Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
29
Summary
Anelasticity
Ductility
Elastic deformation
Elastic recovery
Engineering strain
Engineering stress
Hardness
Modulus of elasticity
Plastic deformation
Poissons ratio
Proportional limit
Shear
Tensile strength
Toughness
Yielding
Yield strength
Make sure you understand language and concepts:
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering
30
Reading for next class:
Chapter 7: Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms

Dislocations and Plastic Deformation
Motion of dislocations in response to stress
Slip Systems
Plastic deformation in
single crystals
polycrystalline materials

Strengthening mechanisms
Grain Size Reduction
Solid Solution Strengthening
Strain Hardening

Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth

Optional reading (Part that is not covered / not tested):
7.7 Deformation by twinning
In our discussion of slip systems, 7.4, we will not get into
direction and plane nomenclature