2141-375

Measurement and Instrumentation

Measurement System
Behavior
Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic characteristics tell us about how well a sensor
responds to changes in its input. For dynamic signals, the sensor or
the measurement system must be able to respond fast enough to keep
up with the input signals.

Sensor Output signal

Input signal
x(t) or y(t)
system

In many situations, we must use y(t) to infer x(t), therefore a

qualitative understanding of the operation that the sensor or
measurement system performs is imperative to understanding the
input signal correctly.
 General Model For A Measurement System
nth Order ordinary linear differential equation with constant coefficient
d n y (t ) d n −1 y (t ) dy (t ) d m x(t ) d m −1 x(t ) dx(t )
an n
+ a n −1 n −1
+  + a1 + a 0 y (t ) = bm m
+ bm −1 m −1
+  + b1 + b0 x(t )
dt dt dt dt dt dt

F(t) = forcing function

Where m≤n
y(t) = output from the system
x(t) = input to the system
t = time
a’s and b’s = system physical parameters, assumed constant
y(0)
The solution y (t ) = yocf + yopi

x(t) y(t) Where yocf = complementary-function part of solution

Measurement
system yopi = particular-integral part of solution
Complementary-Function Solution

The solution yocf is obtained by calculating the n roots of the algebraic characteristic
equation
Characteristic equation an D n + an −1 D n −1 + ... + a1 D + a0 = 0

Roots of the characteristic equation: D = s1 , s2 ,..., sn

Complementary-function solution:

1. Real roots, unrepeated: Ce st

2. Real roots, repeated:

each root s which appear p times (C 0 + C1t + C 2 t 2
+ ... + C p −1t p −1
) e st

3. Complex roots, unrepeated: Ce at sin(bt + φ )

the complex form: a ± ib
[C0 sin(bt + φ0 ) + C1t sin(bt + φ1 ) + C2t 2 sin(bt + φ2 )
4. Complex roots, repeated:
each pair of complex root which appear p times + ... + C p −1t p −1 sin(bt + φ p −1 )]e at
Particular Solution

Method of undetermined coefficients:

yopi = Af (t ) + Bf ′(t ) + Cf ′′(t ) + ...

Where f(t) = the function that describes input quantity

A, B, C = constant which can be found by substituting yopi into ODEs

Important Notes

 • After a certain-order derivative, all higher derivatives are zero.

 • After a certain-order derivative, all higher derivatives have the same
functional form as some lower-order derivatives.
 • Upon repeated differentiation, new functional forms continue to arise.
Zero-order Systems

All the a’s and b’s other than a0 and b0 are zero.

a0 y (t ) = b0 x(t ) y (t ) = Kx(t ) where K = static sensitivity = b0/a0

The behavior is characterized by its static sensitivity, K and remains

constant regardless of input frequency (ideal dynamic characteristic).

xm
x
V = Vr ⋅ here, K = Vr / xm
Vr + xm
y=V Where 0 ≤ x ≤ xm and Vr is a reference voltage
x=0 -

A linear potentiometer used as position

sensor is a zero-order sensor.
First-Order Systems
All the a’s and b’s other than a1, a0 and b0 are zero.
dy (t )
a1 + a0 = b0 x(t )
dt
dy (t ) y K
τ + y (t ) = Kx(t ) ( D) =
dt x τD + 1

Where K = b0/a0 is the static sensitivity

τ = a1/a0 is the system’s time constant (dimension of time)
 First-Order Systems: Step Response
Assume for t < 0, y = y0 , at time = 0 the input quantity, x increases instantly
by an amount A. Therefore t > 0
0 t ≤ 0
x(t ) = AU (t ) = 
A t > 0
dy (t )
τ + y (t ) = KAU (t )
dt

The complete solution: y (t ) = Ce −t /τ + KA

2

yocf yopi
Transient Steady state
response response
U(t)

Applying the initial condition, we get C = y0-KA, thus

gives
0 y (t ) = KA + ( y0 − KA)e −t /τ
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time, t
 First-Order Systems: Step Response

Here, we define the term error fraction as

y (t ) − KA y (t ) − y (∞)
em (t ) = = = e −t / τ
y0 − KA y (0) − y (∞)

1.0 1.0
Output Signal, (y(t)-y0)/(KA-y0)

y (t ) − KA
.8 .8 = e −t / τ
y (0) − KA

Error fraction, em
.6 0.632 .6

y (t ) − y 0
.4 = 1 − e −t /τ .4
KA − y0 0.368

.2 .2

0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
t/ t/
Non-dimensional step response of first-order instrument
Determination of Time constant

y (t ) − KA t
em = = e −t /τ ln em = 2.3 log em = −
y (0) − KA τ

1
y (t ) − KA
0.368 = e −t / τ
y (0) − KA
Error fraction,em

.1
Slope = -1/τ

.01

.001
0 1 2 3 4 5
t
First-Order Systems: Ramp Response
Assume that at initial condition, both y and x = 0, at time = 0, the input quantity
start to change at a constant rate q is Thus, we have

0 t≤0
x(t ) = 
q is t t > 0
Therefore dy (t )
τ + y (t ) = Kq is tU (t )
dt

The complete solution: y (t ) = Ce −t /τ + Kq is (t − τ )

Transient Steady state

response response

Applying the initial condition, gives y (t ) = Kq is (τe −t /τ + t − τ )

y (t )
Measurement error em = x(t ) − = −q isτe −t /τ + q isτ
K

Transient Steady
error state error
First-Order Instrument: Ramp Response

10

Output signal, y/K 8

6
Steady state
time lag = τ
4

Steady state
2 error = q isτ

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
t/

Non-dimensional ramp response of first-order instrument

First-Order Systems: Frequency Response

From the response of first-order system to sinusoidal inputs, x(t ) = A sin ωt

we have
dy
τ + y = KA sin ωt (τD + 1) y (t ) = KA sin ωt
dt

The complete solution: y (t ) = Ce −t /τ +

KA
(
sin ωt − tan −1 ωτ )
1 + (ωτ ) 2

Transient Steady state Frequency

response response = response
If we do interest in only steady state response of the system, we can write the
equation in general form
y (t ) = Ce − t /τ + B (ω ) sin[ωt + φ (ω )]
KA
B (ω ) =
[1 + (ωτ ) ]
2 1/ 2

φ (ω ) = − tan −1 ωτ
Where B(ω) = amplitude of the steady state response and φ(ω) = phase shift
First-Order Instrument: Frequency Response
B 1
M (ω ) = =
KA 1 + ( ωτ ) 2 1/ 2 [ ]
1
The amplitude ratio M (ω ) = The phase angle is φ (ω ) = − tan −1 (ωτ )
(ωτ ) 2 + 1
1.2 Dynamic error 0
-10
1.0 0
-20

Phase shift, ()

Amplitude ratio

.8 -30

Decibels (dB)
-2
-3 dB
0.707 -40
.6 -4
-50
-6
.4 -8 -60
-10 -70
.2 Cutoff frequency -80
-20
0.0 -90
.01 .1 1 10 100 .01 .1 1 10 100
 
Frequency response of the first order system

Dynamic error, δ(ω) = M(ω): a measure of an inability of a system to

adequately reconstruct the amplitude of the input for a particular frequency
Dynamic Characteristics

Frequency Response describe how the ratio of output and input changes
with the input frequency. (sinusoidal input)

Dynamic error, δ(ω) = 1- M(ω) a measure of the inability of a system or sensor

to adequately reconstruct the amplitude of the input for a particular frequency

Bandwidth the frequency band over which M(ω) ≥ 0.707 (-3 dB in decibel unit)

Cutoff frequency: the frequency at which the system response has fallen to
0.707 (-3 dB) of the stable low frequency.

0.35
tr ≈
fc
First-Order Systems: Frequency Response
Ex: Inadequate frequency response
Suppose we want to measure
x(t ) = sin 2t + 0.3 sin 20t
x(t) With a first-order instrument whose τ is 0.2 s and
static sensitivity K

Superposition concept:
K
For ω = 2 rad/s: B(2 rad/s) = ∠ − 21.8o = 0.93K∠ − 21.8o
0.16 + 1

K
y(t)/K For ω = 20 rad/s: B(20 rad/s) = ∠ − 76 o = 0.24 K∠ − 76o
16 + 1

Therefore, we can write y(t) as

y (t ) = (1)(0.93K ) sin( 2t − 21.8o ) + (0.3)(0.24 K ) sin( 20t − 76o )

y (t ) = 0.93K sin( 2t − 21.8o ) + 0.072 K sin(20t − 76 o )

 Dynamic Characteristics
Example: A first order instrument is to measure signals with frequency content up to 100 Hz with
an inaccuracy of 5%. What is the maximum allowable time constant? What will be the phase shift
at 50 and 100 Hz?
Qo (iω ) K
Solution: Define = M (ω ) =
Qi (iω ) ω 2τ 2 + 1
M (ω ) − M (0)  1 
Dynamic error = ×100% =  − 1 ×100%
M ( 0)  ω τ +1 
2 2

1
From the condition |Dynamic error| < 5%, it implies that 0 . 95 ≤ ≤ 1.05
ω τ +1
2 2

But for the first order system, the term 1 / ω 2τ 2 + 1 can not be greater than 1 so that the
constrain becomes 1
0.95 ≤ ≤1
ω τ +1
2 2

Solve this inequality give the range 0 ≤ ωτ ≤ 0.33

0.33
The largest allowable time constant for the input frequency 100 Hz is τ = = 0.52 ms
2π 100 Hz
The phase shift at 50 and 100 Hz can be found from φ = − arctan ωτ

This give φ = -9.33o and = -18.19o at 50 and 100 Hz respectively

Second-Order Systems

In general, a second-order measurement system subjected to arbitrary input, x(t)

2
d y (t ) dy (t )  D 2 2ζ 
a2 + a + a0 y (t ) = b0 x(t )  2 + D + 1 y (t ) = Kx (t )
dt 2 1
dt  ωn ωn 

1 d 2 y (t ) 2ζ dy (t )
+ + y (t ) = Kx (t )
ωn dt
2 2
ωn dt

The essential parameters

b0
K= = the static sensitivity
a0
a1
ζ = = the damping ratio, dimensionless
2 a0 a2

a0 = the natural angular frequency

ωn =
a2
Second-Order Systems

Consider the characteristic equation

1 2 2ζ
D + D +1 = 0
ωn2
ωn
This quadratic equation has two roots:
S1, 2 = −ζω n ± ω n ζ 2 − 1

Depending on the value of ζ, three forms of complementary solutions are possible

 −ζ + ζ 2 −1 ω t  −ζ − ζ 2 −1 ω t
Overdamped (ζ > 1): yoc (t ) = C1e   n
+ C2 e   n

Critically damped (ζ = 1): yoc (t ) = C1e −ωnt + C2te −ωnt

Underdamped (ζ< 1): : (

yoc (t ) = Ce −ζω nt sin ωn 1 − ζ 2 t + Φ )
Second-Order Systems

Case I Underdamped (ζ< 1): Case 2 Overdamped (ζ > 1):

( )
H
L
S1, 2 = −ζω n ± ωn ζ 2 − 1 S1, 2 = − ζ ± ζ 2 − 1 ω n
= σ ± jω d

yt Case 3 Critically damped (ζ = 1):

H
L
−σt S1, 2 = −ωn
Ae
yt
t
ζ =1
sin(ωd t + φ )

ζ >1

t
 Second-order Systems

Example: The force-measuring spring

consider a spring with spring constant Ks under applied force fi

and the total mass M. At start, the scale is adjusted so that xo = 0
when fi = 0;
Σforces=(mass)(acceleration)
dxo d 2 xo
fi − B − K s xo = M
dt dt 2
( MD 2 + BD + K s ) xo = fi
the second-order model:
1
K= m/N
Ks
Ks
ωn = rad/s
M
B
ζ =
2 KsM
Second-order Systems: Step Response

1 d 2 y 2ζ dy  D 2 2ζ 
For a step input x(t) + + y = KAU (t )  2 + D + 1 y (t ) = KAU (t )
ωn dt ωn dt  ωn ωn
2 2


With the initial conditions: y = 0 at t = 0+, dy/dt = 0 at t = 0+

The complete solution:

y (t ) ζ + ζ 2 − 1  −ζ + ζ 2 −1 ω n t ζ − ζ 2 −1  −ζ − ζ 2 −1 ω t

Overdamped (ζ > 1): =− e 
+ e   n
+1
KA 2 ζ −1
2
2 ζ −1
2

y (t )
Critically damped (ζ = 1): = −(1 + ωnt )e −ωnt + 1
KA

Underdamped (ζ< 1): :

y (t )
KA
=−
e −ζωnt
1−ζ 2
(
sin 1 − ζ 2 ωn t + φ + 1 ) (
φ = sin −1 1 − ζ 2 )
Second-order Instrument: Step Response
2π
Ringing frequency: Td =
ωd
2.0 ζ=0 Ringing frequency: ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2
Output signal, y(t)/KA

0.25 Rise time decreases ζ with but

1.5
increases ringing
0.5

1.0 Optimum settling time can be

obtained from ζ ~ 0.7

.5
1.0
Practical systems use 0.6< ζ <0.8
2.0
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
nt
Non-dimensional step response of second-order instrument
Dynamic Characteristics
1.4
overshoot
1.2
Output signal, y(t)/KA

1.0 100% ± 5%

.8

.6

.4
settling
time
.2
rise time
0.0
0 5 10 15 20
Time, t (s)
Typical response of the 2nd order system
Second-order System: Ramp Response

1 d 2 y 2ζ dy
For a ramp input x(t ) = q is tU (t ) + + y = Kq is tU (t )
ωn dt
2 2
ωn dt

With the initial conditions: y = dy/dt = 0 at t = 0+ qo 2q is  −ω n t ω nt 

= qis t −
 1 − e (1 + )
K ωn 2 
The possible solutions:

y (t ) 2ζq is  2ζ 2 − 1 − 2ζ ζ 2 − 1  −ζ − ζ 2 −1 ω n t
= q is t − 1 + e 
Overdamped: K ωn 
 4ζ ζ 2 − 1

− 2ζ 2 + 1 − 2ζ ζ 2 − 1  −ζ + ζ 2 −1 ω t 
+ e   n 
4ζ ζ − 1 2 

y (t ) 2q  ω n t −ω n t 
Critically damped: = q is t − is 1 − (1 + )e 
K ωn  1 

Underdamped:
y (t )
K
= q is t −
2ζq is
ωn

1 −
e −ζω nt
 2ζ 1 − ζ 2
(
sin 1 − ζ 2 ωn t + φ ) 


φ = tan
2ζ 1 − ζ 2
−1

2ζ 2 − 1
Second-order Instrument: Step Response
2q isζ
Steady state error =
10 ωn

8 Steady
τ state 2ζ
Output signal, y(t)/K Ramp input time lag =
ωn
6

4 ζ = 0.3
0.6
2 1.0
2.0

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time, t (s)

Typical ramp response of second-order instrument

Second-order Instrument: Frequency Response

The response of a second-order to a sinusoidal input of the form x(t) = Asinωt

KA
y (t ) = yoc (t ) + sin[ωt + φ (ω )]
{[ ]
1 − ( ω / ωn ) + ( 2ζω / ωn )
2 2 2
1/ 2
}
2ζ
where φ (ω ) = − tan −1
ω / ωn − ωn / ω
The steady state response of a second-order to a sinusoidal input

ysteady (t ) = B(ω ) sin[ωt + φ (ω )]

KA 2ζ
B (ω ) = φ (ω ) = − tan −1
{[1 − (ω / ω ) ] + ( 2ζω / ω ) }
n
2 2
n
2
1/ 2
ω / ωn − ωn / ω

Where B(ω) = amplitude of the steady state response and φ(ω) = phase shift
B 1
M (ω ) = =
{[ ]
KA 1 − ( ω / ω ) 2 2 + ( 2ζω / ω ) 2 1/ 2
n n }
 Second-order Instrument: Frequency Response

The amplitude ratio The phase angle

1 2ζ
M (ω ) = φ (ω ) = − tan −1
{[1 − (ω / ω ) ] + ( 2ζω / ω ) }
n
2 2
n
2
1/ 2
ω / ωn − ωn / ω

0
ζ0 = 0.1
2.0 6 -20
ζ = 0.1 0.3
-40 0.5

Phase shift , 

0.3
Amplitude ratio

1.5 -60
3

Decibel (dB)
1.0
0.5
-80
1.0 0 -100 2.0

-3 -120
1.0
.5 -6 -140
-10
2.0 -15 -160
0.0 -180
.01 .1 1 10 100 .01 .1 1 10 100
n n
Magnitude and Phase plot of second-order Instrument
 Second-order Systems
For overdamped (ζ >1) or critical damped (ζ = 1), there is neither overshoot nor steady-
state dynamic error in the response.
In an underdameped system (ζ < 1) the steady-state dynamic error is zero, but the speed
and overshoot in the transient are related.
1.4
arctan(−ω d / δ ) overshoot Td
Rise time: tr =
ωd 1.2

Output signal, q (t)/Kqis

Maximum
overshoot: (
M p = exp −πζ / 1 − ζ 2 ) 1.0

o
π .8
Peak time: tp =
ωd peak
.6 time
Resonance
ω r = ω n 1 − 2ζ 2 .4
frequency: settling

Resonance 1 time
Mr = .2
amplitude: 2ζ 1 − ζ 2
rise time
0.0
0 5 10 15 20
where δ =ζω n , ω d = ω n 1 − ζ 2 , and φ = arcsin( 1 − ζ 2 ) Time, t (s)
 Dynamic Characteristics

Speed of response: indicates how fast the sensor (measurement system) reacts
to changes in the input variable. (Step input)

Rise time: the length of time it takes the output to reach 10 to 90% of full response
when a step is applied to the input

Time constant: (1st order system) the time for the output to change by 63.2% of its
maximum possible change.

Settling time: the time it takes from the application of the input step until the output
has settled within a specific band of the final value.

Dead time: the length of time from the application of a step change at the input of
the sensor until the output begins to change