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THEORIES OF COUNSELING
By SHABINA REHMAN

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OVERVIEW
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. WHAT IS A THEORY FUNCTIONS OF A THEORY PUTTING A THEORY INTO PRACTICE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY ADLERIAN THEORY BEHAVIORAL THEORY

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What is a Theory
A theory is a A model that counselors use as a guide to hypothesize about the formation of possible solutions to a problem.
Effective counselors chose a theory or theories to use based on their educational background, philosophy, and the needs of clients.

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Five requirements of a good theory (Hansen, Stevic, & Warner, 1986): Clear, easily understood, and communicable Comprehensive Explicit and heuristic (creative) Specific in relating means to desired outcomes Useful to its intended practitioners.

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A good theory is also one that matches the personal philosophies of helping for counselors. Counselors who wish to be versatile and effective should learn a wide variety of counseling theories and know how to apply each without violating its internal consistency.

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Functions of a Theory
Six functions of a theory that helps counselors: Provides unity and relatedness within the diversity of existence. Compels examination of relationships. Operational guidelines to work by and help counselors to evaluate their professional development.

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Provides focus on relevant data and provides a guide to what to look for. Assist in modification of behavior. Provides evaluation of new and old approaches.

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How to put a Theory into Practice
Effective counselors scrutinize theories for proven effectiveness and match them to personal beliefs and realities about the nature of people and change.

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There are more than 400 systems of psychotherapy and counseling. One theory cannot provide all the answers for clients. Eclectic counselors use various theories and techniques to match clients needs.

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Psychoanalytic Theories Psychoanalysis Founder(s)/Developers
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) founder of Psychoanalysis Theory Anna Freud, daughter of S. Freud, elaborated on his ideas as they related to children and development of defense mechanism.

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View of Human Nature Freud believed that humans are motivated by the unconscious, where the Id is found along with the aggression and sex instincts. Believed that the nature of man was basically evil.

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He viewed the development of personality as made of three parts Id Ego Superego

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Id basic instincts operating on the Pleasure Principle. (If it feels good, do it.). Liken to the devil. Driven by sexual and aggressive urges Acts without concern for consequences

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Ego conscious, decision-making executive of the mind. Operates on the Reality Principle. The balance between the id and superego. Acts to moderate drives of the id Concerned with survival of individual

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Superego the conscience of the mind that contains the inner parent. Operates on the Moral Principle Liken to the angel. Governed by norms and values Behavior is controlled by guilt Concerned with morality Driven to perfection

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Fixation in Psychosexual Stage When a basic need is not met, a child becomes stuck at that stage.

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Freuds Psychosexual Stages of Development

Oral birth to 1 year; mouth is the chief pleasure zone. Basic gratification is from sucking and biting. Fixations as an adult If the child is overstimulated in this stage, as an adult she may become dependent on cigarettes or alcohol, become a chatterbox, or derive pleasure from acquiring possessions.

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The child who is understimulated may be a biter or screamer later on, and as an adult make bitingly sarcastic remarks or be argumentative.

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Anal 1 to 3 years; delight is in either withholding or eliminating faeces. Fixations are either anal retentive personality (uptight, obstinate and stingy) because parents were over-emphasizing potty training: Or, anal expulsive (messy cruelty, destructiveness, a bad temper, and messy disorderliness) because parents were negligent about potty training.

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Phallic 3 to 6 years; zone of pleasure is the sex organs (masturbation). Fixations are either Oedipus complex (males) or Electra complex (females). The boy wants to possess his mother and remove his father, and the girl wants to possess her father and displace her mother. These feelings are expressed in children's alternation of loving and rebellious actions toward his parents.

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Fixation at the phallic stage develops a phallic character, who is reckless, resolute, selfassured, and narcissistic--excessively vain and proud. The failure to resolve the conflict can also cause a person to be afraid or incapable of close love; sexual deviancies (both overindulging and avoidance) and weak or confused sexual identity Freud also postulated that fixation could be a root cause of homosexuality.

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Finally, the repression of the Oedipus/Electra complex causes the superego to emerge and undergo its final development. Freud described the superego as "the heir of the male Oedipus complex. It is the bulwark (safeguard) against incest and aggression.

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Latency 6 years to puberty; No fixations. Energy is focused on peer activities and personal mastery of cognitive learning and physical skills. Genital 12 years and up; focus is on relationship with opposite sex. Consequences of Fixation -Frigidity, impotence, unsatisfactory relationships

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Defense mechanisms

Defense mechanisms may be defined as techniques that help individuals reduce tensions by adapting or adjusting to situations thro distortion or denial that would otherwise create high levels of stress or anxiety.

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It is fair to say that all of us use these techniques on occasion- perhaps to lessen our guilt feelings regarding something we failed to do or tell ourselves that we were not supposed to do it in the first place. For the most part, these are normal behaviors and operate at an unconscious level.

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The following are some defense mechanisms Repression- represents those memories, feelings and thoughts that are stored in the unconscious bcos their recall may be painful or fearful. Much of what is repressed occurs in childhood and therefore may not be readily verbalized. Repression is viewed as the basic defense mechanism, and psychoanalysis seeks to bring the repressed into the conscious.

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Rationalization is a commonly practiced defense mechanism that seeks to justify or provide a seemingly reasonable explanation to make undesirable or questionable behaviors appear logical, reasonable, or acceptable. It is frequently used to modify guilt feelings because the valid or true explanation for the behavior would produce feelings of guilt or anxiety.

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The return to an earlier form of behavior or stage of development is called Regression. This usually occurs when the more mature or appropriate behavior is blocked by feelings of uncertainty, anxiety, fear, conflict or lack of reward. In some instances it will also represent a retreat to earlier responses.

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Identification gives one satisfaction or compensation by identifying with others and their achievements. In identification with others, an individual may actually acquire new & useful behaviors.

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Displacement represents movement away from one object to another that is less threatening or anxiety producing. A common form of displacement is sublimation, wherein unacceptable urges may be channeled into more acceptable behaviors as, for example, the conversion of sexual interests and energy into nonsexual activities such as sports, religion, work, and so on.

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Overcompensation (reaction formation) is the display of behaviors as attitudes that represent the opposite of ones repressed feelings. Anxiety & guilt feelings are repressed and their opposites expressed instead.

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In summary, these and other defense mechanisms represent behavioral responses designed to protect the individuals current self concept against threat.

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In the psychoanalytical context, then, reducing tension becomes a major goal of counseling. Psychoanalytic theory usually views the client as weak and uncertain and in need of assistance in reconstructing a normal personality.

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Role of counselor The counselor is in the role of the expert who will facilitate or direct this restructuring.
The therapists role is to analyze the information given by the client from free association, dreams (therapist interprets the dreams) and transference.

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Goals
Personal adjustment. Help client become more aware of the unconscious. Cope with the demands of the society. Stresses environmental adjustment. Strengthening of the ego.

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Techniques
Free Association client says whatever comes to mind. Unconscious material enters the conscious, and the counselor interprets it. Dream Analysis avenue to study the unconscious. Dreams were thought to be childhood wishes and unacknowledged sexual desires. Manifest content (obvious meaning) and the latent content (hidden but true meaning).

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Analysis Transference the clients responds to a counselor as if the counselor were some significant figure in the clients past. Counselor interprets the positive or negative feelings of the client. Release of feeling is an emotional catharsis. Client becomes aware of the emotions and is free to move onto another developmental stage.

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Transference refers to redirection of a patient's feelings for a significant person to the therapist. Since the transference between patient and therapist happens on an unconscious level.

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Psychodynamic therapists who are largely concerned with a patient's unconscious material use the transference to reveal unresolved conflicts patients have with childhood figures. Countertransference is defined as redirection of a therapist's feelings toward a patient, or more generally, as a therapist's emotional entanglement with a patient.

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A therapist's attunement to their own countertransference is nearly as critical as understanding the transference. Not only does this help therapists regulate their emotions in the therapeutic relationship, but it also gives therapists valuable insight into what patients are attempting to elicit in them.

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Analysis of Resistance progress slows; missing appointments, being late for appointments, not paying fees, persisting in transference, blocking thoughts during free association, or refusing to recall dreams or early memories. Therapist must help interpret resistance to client to help him/her move on.

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Interpretation counselor helps the client understand the meaning of past and present personal events: explanations and analysis of a clients thoughts, feelings, and actions

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Strengths and Contributions Emphasis of sexuality and the unconscious. Can be used for a variety of disorders hysteria, narcissism, obsessive-compulsive disorders, personality disorders, anxiety, phobias, and sexual difficulties. Stresses developmental growth stages.

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Limitations Time-consuming and expensive Not as useful for older clients Used mostly in psychiatry Associated with people who have major adjustment difficulties

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Adlerian Theory
Founder Alfred Adler (1870-1937) founder Individual Psychology emphasized the holistic and indivisible nature of people.

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View of Human Nature
People are primarily motivated by social interests. Feelings of being connected to society as a part of the social whole, An active interest in and empathy with others, as well as a need and willingness to contribute to the social good Family environment is important to a persons development the first 5 years. A style of life is created by age 5.

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Negative family atmosphere: authoritarian, rejective, suppressive, materialistic, overprotective, or pitying. Positive family atmosphere: democratic, accepting, open, and social.

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Role of the Counselor
Gathers information on the family constellation and clients earliest memories. Client is encouraged to examine and change a faulty lifestyle by developing social interests

Goals

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Helping people develop healthy holistic lifestyles. Educating or reeducating clients about what healthy lifestyles are and helping them overcome feelings of inferiority. Help clients overcome a faulty style of life a life that is self-centered and based on mistaken goals and incorrect assumptions associated with feelings of inferiority

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Techniques
Counseling relationship must be established by developing a warm, supportive, empathic, friendly, and equalitarian relationship with clients. Analysis of the clients lifestyle: family constellation, early memories, dreams (like Freud), and priorities. Development of client insight by asking openended questions and making interpretations.

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Strengths and Contributions Equalitarian atmosphere: rapport and commitment, encouragement and support, educational orientation and optimistic outlook on life. Useful with a variety of disorders

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Limitations Maybe too optimistic about human nature. Family constellation may not work with other cultures.

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Behavioral Therapy

Focus is on broad range of behaviors. Focus is to learn new, appropriate ways of acting or modifying or eliminating excessive behaviors.

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Founders/Developers B.F. Skinner known for operant conditioning use of reinforcers to increase behaviors use of punishers to decrease behaviors Ivan Pavlov Known for classical conditioning. Was studying digestion by collecting saliva from dogs. Noticed an association between the presentation of food with the increase in saliva.

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Skinners Operant Conditioning

Consequences are contingent on the organisms behavior.
Reinforcement increases the probability that a behavior will occur. Punishment decreases the probability that a behavior will occur.

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Punishment vs. Reinforcement

TYPE Reinforcement positive negative Punishment removal presentation
CONSEQUENCE BEHAVIOR CHANGE

give good take-away bad take-away good give bad

increase increase decrease decrease

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Ivan Pavlov
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism learns to connect or associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.

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Classical Conditioning

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View of Human Nature
Concentrates on behaviors. All behavior is learned. Learning can be used to change behavior.

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Role of the Counselor Active in counseling sessions. Functions as a consultant, teacher, adviser, reinforcer, and facilitator .

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Goals Counselor wants to help clients make good adjustments to life circumstances and achieve personal and professional objectives. Focus is on modifying or eliminating behaviors. Focus is on replacing unproductive behaviors with more constructive behaviors. Counselors and clients must agree on goals.

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Techniques
1. Reinforcers When applied after a behavior, they increase a behavior. Example, giving a child a chocolate for completing his task.

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2. Shaping Rewarding successive approximations to a goal. In other words, rewarding a small step toward a goal with the individual having to get closer to the goal each time to receive the reward. 3. Generalization Applying the learned behavior to another situation or setting outside of the counseling session.

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4. Maintenance Self-monitoring or keeping up with ones own behavior and keeping record of the behavior: self-observation and self-recording

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5. Punishment Either giving an unpleasant consequence for a behavior, or Taking away something pleasant that the person wants

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6. Systematic desensitization Used well with anxieties. Relaxation response breathing deep and relaxing is used while the client is exposed to larger and larger amounts of the feared object or situation.

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7. Assertiveness training Counter-conditioning (pairing something pleasant with something unpleasant like eating ice cream while looking at a snake in a glass cage, the feared object) and reinforcement are used with assertiveness training.

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Strengths and Contributions Symptoms are dealt with immediately. Deals with defining and working on behaviors.

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Limitations Only deals with the behavior, not the whole person. Can be mechanical. Ignores past history and the unconscious.

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IN-CLASS ACTIVITY
Break into groups of 3-4 people. Pick one of the following defense mechanisms and think of an example in your own lives:
Identification Displacement Rationalization

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THINK ABOUT
What are some major counseling theories? How do they explain human behavior? How do theories guide the counseling process? What are integrative approaches to counseling that incorporate multiple theories?

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THANK YOU