Straightness and flatness testing

The features such as straightness, flatness , roundness and profile are important aspect of engineering design and manufacturing. For example piston rods, instrument components and machine tool sideways should all meet certain requirement to function properly, so their accurate measurement is essential.

Straightness testing.
Straightness is extending continuously in the same direction without curving. Straightness can be checked with straight edges or with dial indicators. Autocollimetors is used for measuring straightness.

Autocollimetor
Autocollimetor resumbles a telescope with a light beam which bounces back from the object, are used for acurately measuring small angular deviations on the flat.

 Flatness.
In the manufacture of precision parts and assemblies, flatness is a critical quality of the manufactured surfaces. Flatness is a horizontal surface without a slope, tilt, or curvature.

Flatness can be measured by mechanical means using a surface plate and a dial indicator. Another method for measuring flatness is by interferometry. The device, a glass or fused quartz disk with parallel flat surface, is placed on the surface of the workpiece. When a monochromatic (i.e. of only one wavelength) light beam is aimed at the surface at an angle, the optical flat splits it into two beams, appearing as light and dark bands to the naked eye. However, a truely flat workpiece surface will not split the light beam and thus the fringes will not appear.

Process Planning

 Process planning involves the sequence of individual manufacturing operations for each component, sub-assembly and final assembly of all sub-assemblies. It determines the most approperiate manufacturing process and the order in which they should be performed to produce a given part or product. It includes: 1) what processes and methods should be used and in what sequence. 2) determining tooling and gauging requirement. 3) selecting production equipment and systems and 4) estimating production time and cost of production for the selected processes,toolings and equipment. The process planning starts with the selection of raw material and ends with the completion of part and usually begins after the basic process has provided initial part shape. It is also called as operation sheet, route sheet, operation planning. It requires a through knowledge of machining processes, and assembly processes and exhaustive knowledge of the plant capabilities and the skill

Introduction to process planning

Processing Sequence to manufacture a part.

The process needed to manufacture a given part determined by the material out of which the part is made. A typical processing sequence to fabricate a discrete part consists of: 1. A basic process--- it establishes the initial geometry of the part. e.g. Metal casting, forging, rolling, extrusion etc. 2. One or more secondary processes----. these processes transform the basic shape into the final geometry. 3. Operations to enhance physical properties---- include heat treatment 4. Finishing operations---- include coating on the workpart surface such as electroplating, painting etc.

Process planning classification

Process Planning is classified into the following two processes:1. Manual or traditional process planning. 2. Computer-aided Process Planning (CAPP) It is divided into two parts i) Retrival or Variant CAPP systems ii) Generative CAPP systems

 The manual experience-based process planning is most widely used. Traditionally, process planning is accomplished by manufacturing engineers who are knowledgeable in the particular processes used in the factory and are able to read engineering drawings It is mainly based on a manufacturing engineer's experience and knowledge of production facilities, equipment, their capabilities, processes, and tooling. Based on their knowledge, skill, and experience, they develop the processing steps in the most logical sequence required to make each part. There is much deviations in the level of details among differet companies and industries. The major problem with this approach is that it is time consuming and developed plans may not be consistent and optimum.

The manual experience-based planning method

2. Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP)

Computer aided process planning is developed to overcome the problems experienced while using the manual experience-based process planning . Computer aided process planning is nothing but automating the process planning function by means of computer system. CAPP integrates and optimizes system performance in best possible way. For example, when one changes the design, it must be able to fall back on CAPP module to generate manufacturing process and cost estimates for these design changes. Similarly, in case of machine breakdown on the shop floor, CAPP must generate the alternative actions so that most economical solution can be adopted in the given situation.

Methods in Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP).

Two major methods are used in computer aided process planning; the variant/ retrival CAPP method and the generative CAPP method.

1) The variant or retrival CAPP method

In variant CAPP approach, a process plan for a new part is created by recalling, identifying and retrieving an existing plan for a similar part and making necessary modifications for the new part. Sometimes, the process plans are developed for parts representing a family of parts called master parts. The similiarities in design attributes and manufacturing methods are exploited for the purpose of formation of part families.

Advantages. 1. Once a standard plan has been written, a variety of components can be planned. 2. Comparatively simple programming and installation (compared with generative systems) is required to implement a planning system. 3. The system is understandable, and the planner has control over the final plan. 4. It is easy to learn, and easy to use. Dis- Advantages. 1. The components to be planned are limited to similar components previously planned. 2. Experienced process planners are still required to modify the standard plan for the specific component. 3. It cannot be used in an entirely automated manufacturing system, without additional process planning.

Advatages and dis-advantages of varient method

 2) The generative CAPP method It is a system which automatically synthesizes a process plan for a new component. In the generative CAPP, process plans are generated by means of decision logic, formulas, technology algorithms and geometry based data for converting part from raw material to finished state. The level of detail is much greater in a generative system than a variant system. There are two major components of generative CAPP. Geometry based coding scheme defines all geometric features for process related surfaces together with feature dimensions, locations, tolerances and the surface finish desired on the features. Process knowledge in form of decision logic. Development of manufacturing knowledge base is backbone of generative CAPP. It includes selection of processes, machine tools, jigs or fixtures, tools, inspection equipment and sequencing operations.

Advantages and Dis-advantages of the generative approach

Advantages:1. Generate consistent process plans rapidly; 2. New components can be planned as easily as existing components; 3. It has potential for integrating with an automated manufacturing facility to provide detailed control information.

Dis-advantages:1. It is time consumig process. 2. Require thorough knowledge of the processes and related intricacies 3. Cost effective.

Advantages of CAPP
CAPP has some important advantages over manual process planning which includes; Reduced process planning and production lead-times Faster response to engineering changes in the product Greater process plan accuracy and consistent process plans than when traditional process planning is used. It can increase productivity of process planners. It can reduce the skill required of a planner. Inclusion of up-to-date information in a central database Improved cost estimating procedures and fewer calculation errors More complete and detailed process plans. Improved production scheduling and capacity utilization.. Improved ability to introduce new manufacturing technology and rapidly update process plans to utilize the improved technology.

 It can reduce both process planning and manufacturing cost. Improved legibility over manually written route sheets. CAPP programs can be interfaced with other application programs, such as cost estimating, work standards, and others.