Electrochemical Machining

Dr. P Kuppan

Process Principle
Relies on the principle of electrolysis for material removal.

Deplating action between a conductive workpiece and a shaped tool produces a predictable erosion of the workpiece.
ECM is a new technique for material removal but the underlying principle is not. Michael Faraday (1791 1867) became the first to study electrolysis.

Principle of Electrolysis
When a DC power supply is applied to two electrically conductive materials that are submerged in an electrolyte, a plating action results. The plating action deposits material from the positive pole (anode) to the negative pole (cathode).

Electroplating has been used for many years for adding metals to the surface of parts, the reverse application of material removal was largely ignored until approximately 50 years ago.

Principle of ECM

ECM Process
ECM is the controlled removal of metal by anodic dissolution in an electrolytic cell in which the workpiece is the anode and tool is the cathode. The electrolyte is pumped through the gap between the tool and the workpiece, while direct current is passed through the cell at a low voltage, to dissolve metal from the workpiece. ECM is most often applied when shaped cavities are machined into difficult alloys that are difficult to shape by conventional methods. Complex cavities are quickly produced by ECM by simply feeding the tool into the workpiece until the required depth is reached.

ECM System

ECM system components

POWER SUPPLY
Voltage of 2 to 30 volts (V) (pulsed or continuous) Current ranges from 50 to 10,000 amperes (A), which allow current densities of 5 to 500 A/cm2 Continuous adjustment of the gap voltage Control of the machining current in case of emergency Short circuit protection in a matter of 0.001 s High power factor, high efficiency, small size and weight, and low cost

ELECTRODE GAP
o Current density also controlled by the size of gap between the tool and workpiece. o A small gap results in the highest current density. o The gap may be as small as 0.025 mm or as large as 0.76 mm, the gap size most often used being 0.25 mm. o Small gap size causing short circuits o Large gap size reduced current density, resulting in poor surface finish and decreased MRR.

VELOCITY OF ELECTROLYTE o Velocity of electrolyte affect surface finish and MRR o Normal operation 15 and 60 m/s o Velocity is too low heat and by-products of reaction built up in the gap causing non uniform material removal o High velocity cavitation and uneven material removal o For Sodium Chloride electrolyte 0.95 L/min for every 100 A

ELECTROLYTE PRESSURE and TEMPERATURE o o o o Electrolyte pressure depends on the flow rate. It varies between 69 kPa and 2.7 Mpa Electrolyte temperature can be between 24 and 65 C The selected temperature to be maintained within a few degrees

ECM process Parameters

Electrolyte Create conditions for anodic dissolution of workpiece material Conduct the machining current Remove the debris of the electrochemical reactions from the gap Carry away the heat generated by the machining process Maintain a constant temperature in the machining region

Properties High electrical conductivity Low toxicity and corrosivity Chemical and electrochemical stability Controllable passivating effect

Electrolytes can be classified into two classes i. Inorganic salts that produce by-products (known as sludging electrolyte) ii. Acids or alkalis (known as nonsludging electrolytes) Inorganic Salts Sodium chloride, Potassium chloride, Sodium nitrate, Sodium chlorate o Selection of the particular electrolyte is based on the work piece material, tool and application. o Sodium chloride is the most commonly used electrolyte because of its conductivity is stable over a broad pH range. o Sodium chloride is very corrosive, produces a large amount of sludge and cannot be used on tungsten carbide or molybdeenum.

o Sodium nitrate is also popular much less corrosive and is good for machining of aluminum or copper. o Sodium nitrate --- Passivity of the workpiece (an oxide layer) o Sodium nitrate does not produce surface finishes as fine as sodium chloride. Nonsludging Electrolytes Sulfuric acid Sodium hydroxide
Do not produce large amount of sludge that nonorganic salts do. Chemical composition must be closely controlled to achieve repeatable results. Produces best results for certain specific materials such as molybdenum.

Criteria for a Good ECM Tool Material Good electrical and thermal conductor Easily machinable Resists chemicals Exhibit good stiffness Availability ECM Tool Materials
Aluminum Brass Bronze Carbon Copper Copper-manganese Cupro nickel Copper-tungsten Stainless steel Titanium (99 % pure)

Tool Design Allow for an overcut of 0.025 0.76 mm over all active surfaces. Proper electrolyte flow through the gap if areas of stagnation occur, surface finish will be poor and ridges will be produces in the work piece. Proper design technique, multiple features can be machined simultaneously with one tool. (as may as 50 small holes)

Modes of electrolyte feeding in ECM

Parameters affecting ECM accuracy, surface quality, and productivity

PROCESS CAPABILITIES
o ECM is capable of producing tolerances of approx. 0.012 mm o Typical overcut at the side of the tool is approx. 0.12 mm

o Taper 0.025 mm/mm

o Surface finish at the tip of the tool is 0.1 1.5 m and sides of the tool may produce 5 m.

o Hole size as small as 0.76 mm in diameter can be drilled. Length to diameter ratios upto 20:1 can be accomplished.
o Absence of any thermal damage. o Improper selection of electrolyte or operating at low current can lead to a condition known as Intergranular attack (IGA). o ECM will have less fatigue life. Shoot peening can be used to improve the fatigue properties of ECM processed hardware.

APPLICATIONS
Die sinking Profiling and contouring Trepanning Grinding Drilling

Micro-machining

Biomedical Implant

(a) Two total knee replacement systems showing metal implants (top pieces) with an ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene insert (bottom pieces) (b) Cross-section of the ECM process as applied to the metal implant.

Products
The two most common products of ECM are turbine/compressor blades and rifle barrels. Each of those parts require machining of extremely hard metals with certain mechanical specifications that would be really difficult to perform on conventional machines. Some of these mechanical characteristics achieved by ECM are:
Stress free grooves. Any groove geometry. Any conductive metal can be machined. Repeatable accuracy of 0.0005. High surface finish. Fast cycle time.

Advantages Faster than EDM No tool wear at all. No heat affected zone. Better finish and accuracy. Disadvantages More expensive than conventional machining. Need more area for installation. Electrolytes may destroy the equipment. Not environmentally friendly (sludge and other waste) High energy consumption. Material has to be electrically conductive.

Safety Considerations
Several sensors are used to control short circuit, turbulence, passivation, contact and overcurrent sensors. In case of contact, immense heat would be generated melting the tool, evaporating the electrolyte and cause a fire. The worker must be insulated to prevent electrocution. The tool and the work piece must be grounded before any handling is performed. Hydrogen gas emitted is very flammable, so it should be disposed of properly and fire precautions should be taken. The waste material is very dangerous and environmentally unfriendly (metal sludge) so it must be recycle or disposed of properly. Electrolyte is highly pressurized and worker must check for minor cracks in piping before operating.

Possible impacts of ECM

Modelling of material removal rate

Material removal rate (MRR) is an important characteristic to evaluate efficiency of a non-traditional machining process. In ECM, material removal takes place due to atomic dissolution of work material. Electrochemical dissolution is governed by Faradays laws. The first law states that the amount of electrochemical dissolution or deposition is proportional to amount of charge passed through the electrochemical cell, which may be expressed as:

where m = mass of material dissolved or deposited Q = amount of charge passed

 The second law states that the amount of material deposited or dissolved further depends on Electrochemical Equivalence (ECE) of the material that is again the ratio of the atomic weigh and valency. Thus

 The engineering materials are quite often alloys rather than element consisting of different elements in a given proportion. Let us assume there are n elements in an alloy. The atomic weights are given as A1, A2, .., An with valency during electrochemical dissolution as 1, 2, , n. The weight percentages of different elements are 1, 2, .., n (in decimal fraction) Now for passing a current of I for a time t, the mass of material dissolved for any element i is given by

where a is the total volume of alloy dissolved. Each element present in the alloy takes a certain amount of charge to dissolve.

Problems

Electrochemical Grinding
Uses a rotating cathode embedded with abrasive particles for applications comparable to milling, grinding and sawing

Most of the metal removal is done by the electrolyte, resulting in very low tool wear Adaptable for honing