COMBUSTION ENGINEERING

Paper Code: ChE-611 Credits: 3L+1T=4

Dr. G. N. Halder Chemical Engg Department E-mail: gopinath_haldar@yahoo.co.in
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Syllabus:

Introduction Furnace: Role and Essence Classification of furnaces Heat Transfer Processes in Furnaces Estimation of heat transfer by conduction, convection & radiation, Problems Case study: Steel Plant & Chemical rxns Furnace design and theories, applications Refractory and Insulating materials Flameless combustion and its significance
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Syllabus:

Beneficiation of Coal Clean Coal Technology Coal bed Methane and Carbon dioxide Sequestration Coal gasification technology, chemical rxns, process conditions, Underground Coal Gasification ASTM test techniques of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels
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Text/Reference Books
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Modern Furnace Technology: Etherington & Etherington, Charles Griffin & Company Ltd Combustion Engg and Fuel Technology: A. K. Saha, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Science and Technology of Coal and Coal Utilization: Cooper and Ellingson, Plenum Fuels and Combustion: Sharma & Mohan Fundamentals of Coal Combustion for Clean and Efficient Use: L. D. Smoot, Elsevier
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FURNACE IN COMBUSTION
Definition: A furnace is an enclosed structure in which fuel is burned to produce heat to melt metals for casting or heat materials for change of shape (rolling, forging etc) or change of properties (heat treatment). The term furnace is derived from the Latin word FORNAX means oven.
Areas of application: Steel making industries, Oil refineries, Research laboratory, Chemical plants and allied process industries.

Essence of Furnace Technology

In the process of combustion in the furnaces, the chemical energy of fuel transforms into the thermal energy, which is used either directly, or through the agency of heat energy, is converted into mechanical power. Chemical energy Thermal energy Power

Furnace technology comprises scientifically applied knowledge of combustion, thermodynamics, gas flow, heat transfer, and the properties of furnace materials. It includes the application of sound engineering principles to the construction and control of furnaces and related equipment. Combustion in a furnace is the constant pressure process.

Continued
Efficient combustion of a fuel in a Furnace largely depends upon the following stringent factors:

Geometry Design Shape of the inner shell Selection of Materials of construction Alignment of Refractory materials Proper Insulation Thermal conductivity of the materials Quantity of feed charged Air fuel ratio

Characteristics of an efficient furnace

Furnace should be designed so that in a given time, as much of material as possible can be heated to an uniform temperature as possible with the least possible fuel and labour. To achieve this end, the following parameters can be considered: Determination of the quantity of heat to be imparted to the material or charge. Liberation of sufficient heat within the furnace to heat the stock and overcome all heat losses.

Equalization of the temperature within the stock

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Transfer of available part of that heat from the furnace gases to the surface of the heating stock. Reduction of heat losses from the furnace to the minimum possible extent.

Classification of Furnaces
A furnace is usually described considering its structure consisting of three main portions: fireplace (where combustion of fuel takes place) working chamber (where heat is transferred from the products of combustion to the materials under heating) the appliances for the removal of the flue gases

A furnace may be classified in several ways. I) Classification by HEAT SOURCE or TYPE OF FUEL: Furnaces may be heated by combustion of solid, liquid or gaseous fuels. Depending upon the kinds of fuel, it may be divided into: four classes : a) solid fuel furnaces (coal-fired, coke-fired, wood-fired) b) liquid fuel furnaces (oil-fired) c) gaseous fuel furnaces (producer-gas fired) d) mixed fuel furnaces (combination of any two or three fuels may be used, e.g., CNG)

Continued
II) Classification by METHOD OF CHARGING: a) continuous type furnaces (e.g. rolling mill furnace) b) batch type furnaces (e.g., glass pot, tank furnace)

Continued
III) Classification by DEVICES EMPLOYED FOR REMOVAL OF FLUE GASES: All the existing furnaces may be divided into two classes : a) natural draught furnaces (furnaces operating either with chimneys or with open doors. It is also called self-draught furnace) b) forced draught furnaces (here forced draught fans are used both for the removal of flue gases and introduction of air needed for combustion)

Continued
IV) Classification by MODE OF OPERATION: Depending upon this condition, furnaces may be divided into two classes : a) periodical furnaces (e.g., coke-ovens, brick kilns, annealing furnaces) b) continuous furnaces (e.g., glass tank furnaces, continuous gas retorts)

Continued
V) Classification by MODE OF HEAT RECOVERY: a) regenerative furnaces b) recuperative furnaces

Some Common Industrial Furnaces

1. Blast furnace 2. Muffle furnace 3. Coal-fired furnace 4. Pot furnace 5. Gas-fired furnace 6. Retort furnace 7. Direct-fired furnace 8. Rotary kiln 9. Recirculating furnace 10. Regenerative furnace
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BLAST FURNACE
A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical furnace used for smelting to produce industrial metals, generally iron. In a blast furnace, fuel (coke), ore, and flux (limestone) are continuously supplied through the top of the vertical cylindrical furnace, while air (sometimes with oxygen enrichment) is blown into the bottom of the chamber for combustion of the fuel, so that the chemical reactions take place throughout the furnace as the material moves downward by gravity. The end products are usually molten metal and slag phases tapped from the bottom continuously or intermittently, and flue gases exiting from the top of the furnace.

Blast Furnace

Top Gas Mains

Top Bins

Throat Armour

Above Burden Probe Temperature Probe

Refractory Lining

Sub Burden Probe

Bustle Main

Tuyeres Hearth Refractories

Iron making in the Blast Furnace

Bell Less Top

Sinter

Coke
Hot Blast Stoves Gas Cleaning Gasholder

Stock House

Scrubber Combustion Air Blower Combustion Gas Slag, Hot Metal Enrichment Gas

Cast House

Chemical Reactions Involved:

The main chemical reaction producing the molten iron is: Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2 This reaction might be divided into multiple steps, with the first being that preheated blast air blown into the furnace reacts with the carbon in the form of coke to produce carbon monoxide and heat: 2C(s) + O2(g) 2 CO(g) The hot carbon monoxide is the reducing agent for the iron ore and reacts with the iron oxide to produce molten iron and carbon dioxide. Depending on the temperature in the different parts of the furnace (warmest at the bottom) the iron is reduced in several steps. At the top, where the temperature usually is in the range between 200 C and 700 C, the iron oxide is partially reduced to iron (II,III) oxide, Fe3O4.

Chemical Reactions Involved:

3 Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) 2 Fe3O4(s) + CO2(g) At temperatures around 850 C, further down in the furnace, the iron(II,III) is reduced further to iron(II) oxide: Fe3O4(s) + CO(g) 3 FeO(s) + CO2(g) Hot carbon dioxide, unreacted carbon monoxide, and nitrogen from the air pass up through the furnace as fresh feed material travels down into the reaction zone. As the material travels downward, the counter-current gases both preheat the feed charge and decompose the limestone to CaO and CO2 at 900 0C : CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Chemical Reactions Involved:

As the iron(II) oxide moves down to the area with higher temperatures, ranging up to 1200 C degrees, it is reduced further to iron metal: FeO(s) + CO(g) Fe(s) + CO2(g) The carbon dioxide formed in this process is rereduced to carbon monoxide by the coke: C(s) + CO2(g) 2 CO(g) The temperature-dependent equilibrium controlling the gas atmosphere in the furnace is called the Boudouard reaction: 2CO CO2 + C

Chemical Reactions Involved:

The decomposition of limestone in the middle zones of the furnace proceeds according to the following reaction: CaCO3 CaO + CO2 The calcium oxide formed by decomposition reacts with various acidic impurities in the iron (notably silica), to form a slag which is essentially CaSiO3: SiO2 + CaO CaSiO3 The pig iron" produced by the blast furnace has a relatively high carbon content of around 45%, making it very brittle, and of limited immediate commercial use. Some pig iron is used to make cast iron. The majority of pig iron produced by blast furnaces undergoes further processing to reduce the carbon content and produce various grades of steel used for construction materials, automobiles, ships and machinery.

Composition of Produced Iron:

Iron : 93.5 - 95.0% Carbon : 4.1 - 4.4% (partly in the form of graphite) Manganese : 0.55 0.75% Silicon: 0.3 - 1% Phosphorous: 0.03 - 0.09% Sulphur: 0.025 - 0.050% Titanium: 0.02 - 0.06%

Drawback in Steel making:

One of the biggest drawbacks of the blast furnaces is the inevitable carbon dioxide production as iron is reduced from iron oxides by carbon and there is no economical substitute steelmaking is one of the unavoidable industrial contributors of the CO2 (greenhouse gas) emissions in the world.
How can it be utilized?

MUFFLE FURNACE

It consists of a refractory container or muffle supported in a surrounding combustion chamber. The charge is placed in the muffle and is heated by conduction through the walls of the muffle. Muffle furnaces are used when it is desired to control the atmosphere in contact with the charge, to avoid contamination by furnace gas, or to assure a uniform high temperature.

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Muffle Furnace

There are few muffle furnaces constructed to receive containers in which the charge is sealed or otherwise separated from the flame. After advancement in materials for heating elements, such as molybdenum disilicide, offered in certain models, can now produce working temperatures up to 1800 degrees Celsius, which facilitate more sophisticated metallurgical applications.

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Muffle Furnace

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Muffle Furnace: Application Areas

Fusing glass in Glass and Ceramic industries Creating enamel coatings in Paint industries Heat treatment in Ceramics Soldering and brazing articles in Fabrication of metal body: Steel industries Also used in many research facilities, for example, in order to determine what proportion of a sample is non-combustible and non-volatile (i.e., ash).

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Pot furnace
Pot furnace is a circular furnace containing a metal or refractory pot or crucible in which glass is melted for change of shape. It can be used for annealing, normalizing & salt- bath solution treatment. It may be regenerative or recuperative. The energy consumption is low but the efficiency is high.

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Illustration of Pot furnace

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Pot furnace

Charging to a Pot furnace

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Double pot furnace

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Coal-fired furnace
A pulverized coal-fired furnace is an industrial or utility furnace that generates thermal energy by burning pulverized coal (also known as powdered coal or coal dust). Coal is pulverized and carried into the furnace through a burner by an air-stream. This type of boiler dominates the electric power industry, providing steam to drive large turbines. Pulverized coal provides the thermal energy which produces about 50% of the world's electric supply.

Coal-fired furnace

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Regenerative furnace
The regenerative furnace was first invented by Robert Stirling in 1816 and was applied to glass melting by Fredrick Siemens. A furnace in which gas is used as fuel and air is for supporting combustion. The incoming air is heated by regenerators. By a direct furnace having a regenerator, we can save energy upto 75%.

Regenerative furnace

Regenerative furnace

Direct-fired Furnace

The operation in a direct-fired furnace is very simple. The burners are spaced along one side of the furnace near the roof, and vertical flues are constructed in the opposite wall with ports inside the furnace at hearth level. The products of combustion from the flame cross the furnace in a downward direction to the ports and pass up through the flues. In a long furnace, burners and flues are located on both sides in staggered positions. The material to be heated lies on the hearth directly exposed to the flame and hot gases.
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Recirculating Furnaces
Many furnace operations, such as, stess releiving of weldments and tempering of hardened steel parts, require heating at closely controlled temperatures upto 650C. Direct combustion products are usually much hotter than the required temperature and it may be difficult to control the temperature of the product without local overheating.

A recirculating furnace includes an external recirculating duct, with a high temperature fan used to draw off and recirculate the furnace atmosphere. The furnace gases are maintained only slightly above the desired temperature by burning fuel and mixing the high-temperature products with furnace gases before they are returned to the furnace.
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Recirculating Furnace

Maximum operating temperature 650C Chamber capacities of 22, 112 & 324 litres Heating is provided by resistance wire elements on both sides of the chamber Powerful centrifugal fan and air guide system forces air over the elements & back through the chamber to ensure good thermal uniformity Easy clean stainless steel inner chamber

Applications:
Applications in general industry include: Low temperature ferrous metal heat treatment processes; # annealing # tempering # normalising and # stress relieving

Rotary Kiln:
A Rotary kiln is a device used to raise materials to a high temperature (calcination) in a continuous process. Materials produced using rotary kilns include: Cement Lime Refractories Titanium dioxide A alumina Vermiculite Iron ore pellets In rotary kilns, the entire kiln rotates and is inclined at a slight angle, the movement of material by gravity from one end to other is assisted by the rotation. They are also used for roasting a wide variety of sulfide ores prior to metal extraction.

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Rotary Kiln

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Rotary Kiln: Operation Principle

The kiln is a cylindrical vessel, inclined slightly to the horizontal, which is rotated slowly about its axis. The material to be processed is fed into the upper end of the cylinder. As the kiln rotates, material gradually moves down towards the lower end, and may undergo a certain amount of stirring and mixing. Hot gases pass along the kiln, sometimes in the same direction as the process material (co-current), but usually in the opposite direction (counter-current). The hot gases may be generated in an external furnace, or may be generated by a flame inside the kiln. Such a flame is projected from a burner-pipe (or "firing pipe") which acts like a large bunsen burner. The fuel for this may be gas, oil or pulverized coal.

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Components of Rotary Kiln

KILN SHELL:

This is made from rolled mild steel plate, usually between 15 and 30 mm thick, welded to form a cylinder which may be up to 230 m in length and up to 6 m in diameter. This will be usually situated on a east/west axis to prevent eddy currents. Upper limits on diameter are set by the tendency of the shell to deform under its own weight to an oval cross section, with consequent flexure during rotation. Length is not necessarily limited, but it becomes difficult to cope with changes in length on heating and cooling (typically around 0.1 to 0.5% of the length) if the kiln is very long.
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Components of Rotary Kiln

DRIVE GEAR:
The kiln is usually turned by means of a single Girth Gear surrounding a cooler part of the kiln tube, but sometimes it is turned by driven rollers. The gear is connected through a gear train to a variable-speed electric motor. A 6 x 60 m kiln requires around 800 kW to turn at 3 rpm. The speed of material flow through the kiln is proportional to rotation speed, and so a variable speed drive is needed in order to control this. In many processes, it is dangerous to allow a hot kiln to stand still if the drive power fails. Temperature differences between the top and bottom of the kiln may cause the kiln to warp, and refractory is damaged. It is therefore normal to provide an auxiliary drive for use during power cuts. This may be a small electric motor with an independent power supply, or a diesel engine. This turns the kiln very slowly, but enough to prevent damage.
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Components of Rotary Kiln

Refractory Lining:
The purpose of the refractory lining is to insulate the steel shell from the high temperatures inside the kiln, and to protect it from the corrosive properties of the process material. It may consist of refractory bricks or cast refractory concrete, or may be absent in zones of the kiln that are below around 250C. The refractory selected depends upon the temperature inside the kiln and the chemical nature of the material being processed. In some processes, such as cement, the refractory life is prolonged by maintaining a coating of the processed material on the refractory surface. The thickness of the lining is generally in the range 80 to 300 mm. A typical refractory will be capable of maintaining a temperature drop of 1000C or more between its hot and cold faces.

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Components of Rotary Kiln

TYRES and ROLLERS

Tyres, sometimes called riding rings, usually consist of a single annular steel casting, machined to a smooth cylindrical surface, which attach loosely to the kiln shell through a variety of "chair" arrangements. These require some ingenuity of design, since the tyre must fit the shell snugly, but also allow thermal movement. The tyre rides on pairs of steel rollers, also machined to a smooth cylindrical surface, and set about half a kiln-diameter apart. The rollers must support the kiln, and allow rotation that is as nearly frictionless as possible. A well-engineered kiln, when the power is cut off, will swing pendulum-like many times before coming to rest. The mass of a typical 6 x 60 m kiln, including refractories and feed, is around 1100 tonnes, and would be carried on three tyres and sets of rollers, spaced along the length of the kiln. The longest kilns may have 8 sets of rollers, while very short kilns may have only two. Kilns usually rotate at 0.5 to 2 rpm, but sometimes as fast as 5 rpm. The Kilns of most modern cement plants are running at 4 to 5 rpm. The bearings of the rollers must be capable of withstanding the large static and live loads involved, and must be carefully protected from the heat of the kiln and the ingress of dust. In addition to support rollers, there are usually upper and lower "retaining (or thrust) rollers" bearing against the side of tyres, that prevent the kiln from slipping off the support rollers.

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