Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Ronnie Belmans
Stijn Cole Dirk Van Hertem
Copyright 2005
Overview
Lesson 1: Liberalization Lesson 2: Players, Functions and Tasks Lesson 3: Markets Lesson 4: Present generation park Lesson 5: Future generation park Lesson 6: Introduction to power systems Lesson 7: Power system analysis and control Lesson 8: Power system dynamics and security Lesson 9: Future grid technologies: FACTS and HVDC Lesson 10: Distributed generation
To transport the electric power from the point of generation to the load centers All above a certain voltage
To distribute the electric power among the consumers Below a certain voltage
Transmission system
Higher voltage (typical at least 110 kV and higher) Power injection by generation and import, large consumers Interconnected internationally Meshed nature-Redundancy (Subtransmission system) Between transmission system and distribution system Connection of large industrial users and cities Open loop/partly meshed Distribution system 400 V to some ten of kV Industry, commercial and residential areas Radial
Copyright 2005 - 2008
UCTE
P or S = U * I
Increase current I
o
Increase voltage U
o
More insulation
Direct Current DC
Alternating current AC
Transformer
AC transmission system
Frequency of 50 or 60Hz
Current changes direction 100 or 120 times a sec Active AND reactive power in the same line
Skin effect
o
Switchyard
DC transmission system
Only active power
Current flows in one direction Conductor cross-sections fully used Low transmission losses Requires DC-AC converters to control the voltage level Expensive Switching of higher voltage DC more difficult
AC vs DC
Advantages of AC
Advantages of DC
o
Cheaper transformation between voltages Easy to switch off Less equipment needed Known and reliable technology More economical in general Rotating field
No reactive power problem With different frequencies (Japan,South-America) Different control area, i.e. UCTE with Nordel and UK
Economical
o
Widely used in transmission over large distances More expensive than lines
o
Underground cables
5 to 25 times higher capital costs for 380kV Ground above the cable can be still used However, maintenance costs are significant
Overhead line
Evaluation: different
points of view
AC underground
Advantages
Widely used in transmission over large distances Most economical (especially in rural areas) Well-known technology
Best choice from techno-economic point of view Classic approach to network reinforcement
Environmental aspects
Visual impact Vegetation Population Town planning Cultural heritage Natural site and landscape
Regulatory
Conclusion
Best from technoeconomic point of view Worst from environmental, social & political point of view
alternatives needed!
Copyright 2005 - 2008
Increased ampacity
No new towers needed cost effective Tower and foundation modifications may be needed very high cost new conductor types
Heavier conductors
Material properties
Economics Regulatory
Composite core Surrounded by aluminium(-zirconium) Increased strenght and reduced weight Increased ampacity Significantly higher cost No tower modifications needed Outdated standards state maximum conductor temperature independent of conductor type
Other drawbacks
New technology limited experience e.g.: no data on expected lifetime available Higher operating temp losses increase
Copyright 2005 - 2008
AC cables
Technical
o o o o
Almost no maintenance needed Repair more difficult Technical difficulties at high voltages Limited distance
Economical
5 to 25 times higher capital costs (/MVA) o Although cost differences have narrowed o Repair costs are significant
o
AC cables
Environmental
o
o
AC cables
Classic
New types
Temperature protection
Higher voltages due to better insulation Suited to bulk transmission C lower suitable for long distances Complex placement (many joints) Arcing by-products hazardous for environment Considered for future tunnel connections (e.g. in the Alps)
No conduction losses at cryogenic temperatures Cooling losses Cooling and cooling equipment expensive Reduced dimensions Environmentally friendly Could prove economic for specific cases R&D needed
AC cables vs DC cables
Source: ABB
Cables
Constant monitoring of system conditions Frequency control (active power) Voltage management (reactive power) Access Responsible Parties (ARP) need to balance their productions and consumption
TSO takes actions if ARP deviates from the schedule TSO charges the ARP for the incurred costs
ARP
Production Import/ Export
~
Grids
~
ARP1 ARPN
~
I/E
I/E
Consumer
Copyright 2005 - 2008
Frequency control
Compensate for short-term unbalances at local level Stabilize frequency within acceptable range around set point Control the load-generation balance at the programmed export-import Contribute to bringing the frequency back to its set point Relieve the primary control reserve after an incident Laufenburg control centre in Switzerland To account for the Synchronous Time deviations
Excitation of generators Capacitors SVCs (Static Var Compensators) Zonal coordination of the voltage and reactive power control Maintains the required voltage level at a key node Optimization of the reactive power distribution
State estimation
o
Contingency analysis
o
23 countries, 33 TSOs, 620 GW installed capacity, 295 TWh exchanges Full synchronous operation of its members in 1958 absorbed many smaller initiatives along the way
Nordel
UKTSOA ATSOI UPS/IPS
F,SWE,NO,DK (part) UK
Improved system frequency control to minimize major disturbances Mutual support in case of emergencies Sharing reserve capacities
non-discriminatory domestic and cross-border access to the grid No need for synchronous area as such, also possible with dc links
Source: IAEW
Copyright 2005 - 2008
Successor of past technical and organizational rules and recommendations Unification and formalization of standards To make the best possible use of benefits of interconnected operation To keep the quality standards in the market environment
Operation handbook: http://www.ucte.org/publications/ophandbook/
Countries structurally exporting or importing Unstable production strongly influences the pattern
o
However
Wind generation
Benelux case
Up to 0.4
Phase shifter investments in the Benelux in order allow power flow control
1
2 5
3 4
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Meeden (Nl) Gronau (D) Kinrooi (B) Kinrooi (B) Zandvliet (B) Monceau (B)
6
Copyright 2005 - 2008
Loss of N-1 security on 2 cross-border lines Loss of N-1 security on phase shifting transformer Gronau (charged at 1250 MW) Risk for the blackout in Benelux
B
- 1017
ELIA
798
NL
- 2967
TENNET
2169
CENTREL
PSE
D
RWE
2150
PSE PL
CEPS CZ
1815
North South GB
SEPS
MVM H
+3903
SK
+3126
4669
RTE 752
- 504
+3846
1525
DC link
118
- 426
A
120
APG
575
+677
CH E
REE
646
+2614 +2560
ETRANS
3022
I P
REN
ELES SLO
1704
- 5380
TERNA
481
HEP HR
ELES
BiH
- 452
401
B
- 1017
ELIA
798 1485
NL
- 2967
TENNET
2169 4553
CENTREL
PSE
D
RWE
2150 1421
PSE PL
CEPS CZ
1815
505
North South GB
SEPS SK
MVM H
+3903
+3126
4669
RTE 752
- 504
+3846
1189
1525
DC link
342 118
- 426
A
120
APG
575
+677
CH E
REE
646 846
+2614 +2560
ETRANS
28 401
ELES SLO
3022
I P
REN
2875
1704 1267
- 5380
TERNA
481
HEP HR
ELES
BiH
- 452
2283 2320
NL
TENNET
2384
CENTREL
PSE CEPS CZ
North South
D
RWE
729
PL
SEPS SK
MVM H
PSE
F
RTE
4327
1307
A
APG
CH E
REE
1492
ETRANS
92 147
I P
REN
ELES SLO
437
TERNA
HEP HR
ELES
BiH
Share of daily wind power in respective daily peak demand in E.ON-grid (Germany).
Conclusions
Grid operation becomes more complex Due to the market based flows Caused by wind energy Controlling frequency and voltage by active and reactive power