COMPUTER GRAPHICS

CHAPTER 3
2D GRAPHICS ALGORITHMS

2D Graphics Algorithms

Output Primitives Line Drawing Algorithms

DDA Algorithm Midpoint Algorithm Bersenhems Algorithm

Circle Drawing Algorithms

Midpoint Circle Algorithm

Antialising Fill-Area Algorithms

2

Output Primitives

Output Primitives

The basic objects out of which a graphics display is created are called. Describes the geometry of objects and typically referred to as geometric primitives. Examples: point, line, text, filled region, images, quadric surfaces, spline curves

Each of the output primitives has its own set of attributes.

4

Output Primitives

Points

Attributes: Size, Color.

glPointSize(p); glBegin(GL_POINTS); glVertex2d(x1, y1); glVertex2d(x2, y2); glVertex2d(x3, y3); glEnd()

Output Primitives

Lines

Attributes: Color, Thickness, Type

glLineWidth(p); glBegin(GL_LINES); glVertex2d(x1, y1); glVertex2d(x2, y2); glVertex2d(x3, y3); glVertex2d(x4, y4); glEnd()

Output Primitives

Polylines (open)

A set of line segments joined end to end.

Attributes: Color, Thickness, Type

glLineWidth(p); glBegin(GL_LINE_STRIP); glVertex2d(x1, y1); glVertex2d(x2, y2); glVertex2d(x3, y3); glVertex2d(x4, y4); glEnd()

Output Primitives

Polylines (closed)

A polyline with the last point connected to the first point . Attributes: Color, Thickness, Type
Note: A closed polyline cannot be filled.
glBegin(GL_LINE_LOOP); glVertex2d(x1, y1); glVertex2d(x2, y2); glVertex2d(x3, y3); glVertex2d(x4, y4); glEnd()

Output Primitives

Polygons

A set of line segments joined end to end.

Attributes: Fill color, Thickness, Fill pattern

Note: Polygons can be filled.
glBegin(GL_POLYGON); glVertex2d(x1, y1); glVertex2d(x2, y2); glVertex2d(x3, y3); glVertex2d(x4, y4); glEnd()

Output Primitives

Text

Attributes: Font, Color, Size, Spacing, Orientation.

Font:

Type (Helvetica, Times, Courier etc.) Size (10 pt, 14 pt etc.)

Style (Bold, Italic, Underlined)

10

Output Primitives

Images

Attributes: Image Size, Image Type, Color Depth. Image Type:

Binary (only two levels)

Monochrome
Color.

Color Depth:
Number of bits used to represent color.
11

TCS2111

Output Primitives
Output Primitive Point Line Attributes Size Color Thickness (1pt, 2pt ) Type (Dashed, Dotted, Solid) Color Font (Arial, Courier, Times Roman) Size (12pt, 16pt ..) Spacing Orientation (Slant angle) Style (Bold, Underlined, Double lined) Color Fill Pattern Fill Type (Solid Fill, Gradient Fill) Fill Color Color Depth (Number of bits/pixel)
12

Text

Filled Region

Images

Line Drawing Algorithms

13

Line Drawing
Line drawing is fundamental to computer graphics. We must have fast and efficient line drawing functions. Rasterization Problem: Given only the two end points, how to compute the intermediate pixels, so that the set of pixels closely approximate the ideal line.

Line Drawing - Analytical Method

y

by a y bx ax
B(bx,by)

c a y max
y=mx+c
A(ax,ay) ax

bx

Line Drawing - Analytical Method

double m = (double)(by-ay)/(bx-ax); double c = ay - m*ax; double y; int iy; for (int x=ax ; x <=bx ; x++) { y = m*x + c; iy = round(y); setPixel (x, iy); } Directly based on the analytical equation of a line. Involves floating point multiplication and addition Requires round-off function.

Incremental Algorithms
I have got a pixel on the line (Current Pixel). How do I get the next pixel on the line? Compute one point based on the previous point:

(x0, y0)...(xk, yk)

(xk+1, yk+1) .

Next pixel on next column (when slope is small)

Next pixel on next row (when slope is large)

Incrementing along x
Current Pixel (xk, yk) (6,3) (5,2) (6,2) (6,1)

To find (xk+1, yk+!):

xk+1 = xk+1
yk+1 = ?

Assumes that the next pixel to be set is on the next column of pixels (Incrementing the value of x !) Not valid if slope of the line is large.

Line Drawing - DDA

Digital Differential Analyzer Algorithm is an incremental algorithm.

Assumption: Slope is less than 1 (Increment along x). Current Pixel = (xk, yk). (xk, yk) lies on the given line. yk = m.xk + c Next pixel is on next column. xk+1 = xk+1 Next point (xk+1, yk+1) on the line yk+1 = m.xk+1 + c = m (xk+1) +c = yk + m
Given a point (xk, yk) on a line, the next point is given by xk+1 = xk+1 yk+1 = yk + m

Line Drawing - DDA

double m = (double) (by-ay)/(bx-ax); double y = ay; int iy; for (int x=ax ; x <=bx ; x++) { iy = round(y); setPixel (x, iy); y+ = m; } Does not involve any floating point multiplication. Involves floating point addition. Requires round-off function

Midpoint Algorithm
Midpoint algorithm is an incremental algorithm

Assumption: Slope < 1 Current Pixel

xk+1 = xk+1 yk+1 = Either yk or yk+1

Midpoint Algorithm - Notations

( xk+1, yk+1)
Line

Candidate Pixels

Midpoint
Current Pixel ( x k , yk )

( xk+1, yk)

Coordinates of Midpoint = ( xk+1, yk+(1/2) )

Midpoint Algorithm:
Choice of the next pixel

Midpoint Below Line

Midpoint Above Line

If the midpoint is below the line, then the next pixel is (xk+1, yk+1). If the midpoint is above the line, then the next pixel is (xk+1, yk).

Equation of a line revisited.

Equation of the line:

x ax by a y bx ax
B(bx,by)

y ay

Let w = bx ax, and h = by ay.

Then, h (x ax) w (y ay) = 0.

(h, w , ax , ay are all integers). In other words, every point (x, y) on the line satisfies the equation F(x, y) =0, where F(x, y) = h (x ax) w (y ay).

A(ax,ay)

Midpoint Algorithm:
Regions below and above the line.

F(x,y) < 0 (for any point above line)

F(x,y) = 0

F (x,y) > 0 (for any point below line)

Midpoint Algorithm
Decision Criteria

f ( x, y) 0
F(MP) > 0

F(MP) < 0

Midpoint below line

Midpoint above line

Midpoint Algorithm
Decision Criteria
Decision Parameter

F(MP) = F(xk+1, yk+ ) = Fk

(Notation)

If Fk < 0 : The midpoint is above the line. So the next pixel is (xk+1, yk). If Fk 0 : The midpoint is below or on the line. So the next pixel is (xk+1, yk+1).

Midpoint Algorithm Story so far.

Midpoint Below Line

Midpoint Above Line

Fk > 0

Fk < 0 yk+1 = yk
Next pixel = (xk+1, yk)

yk+1 = yk+1
Next pixel = (xk+1, yk+1)

Midpoint Algorithm
Update Equation
Fk = F(xk+1, yk+ ) = h (xk+1 ax) w (yk+ ay)
Update Equation

But, Fk+1 = Fk + h w (yk+1 yk). (Refer notes) So, Fk< 0 : Fk 0 : yk+1 = yk. yk+1 = yk+1. Hence, Fk+1 = Fk + h . Hence, Fk+1 = Fk + h w.

F0 = h w/2.

Midpoint Algorithm
int h = by-ay; int w = bx-ax; float F=h-w/2; int x=ax, y=ay; for (x=ax; x<=bx; x++){ setPixel(x, y); if(F < 0) F+ = h; else{ F+ = h-w; y++; } }
30

Bresenhams Algorithm
int h = by-ay; int w = bx-ax; int F=2*h-w; int x=ax, y=ay; for (x=ax; x<=bx; x++){ setPixel(x, y); if(F < 0) F+ = 2*h; else{ F+ = 2*(h-w); y++; } }
31

Circle Drawing Algorithms

32

Midpoint Circle Drawing Algorithm

To determine the closest pixel position to the specified circle path at each step. For given radius r and screen center position (xc, yc), calculate pixel positions around a circle path centered at the coodinate origin (0,0). Then, move each calculated position (x, y) to its proper screen position by adding xc to x and yc to y.

Along the circle section from x=0 to x=y in the first quadrant, the gradient varies from 0 to -1.
33

TCS2111

Midpoint Circle Drawing Algorithm

8 segments of octants for a circle:

34

TCS2111

Midpoint Circle Drawing Algorithm

Circle function: fcircle (x,y) = x2 + y2 r2

fcircle (x,y) =

> 0, (x,y) outside the circle < 0, (x,y) inside the circle = 0, (x,y) is on the circle boundary

35

TCS2111

Midpoint Circle Drawing Algorithm

yk
midpoint

yk
midpoint

yk-1

yk-1

Fk < 0 yk+1 = yk
Next pixel = (xk+1, yk)

Fk >= 0 yk+1 = yk - 1
Next pixel = (xk+1, yk-1)
36

TCS2111

Midpoint Circle Drawing Algorithm

We know xk+1 = xk+1, Fk = F(xk+1, yk- ) Fk = (xk +1)2 + (yk - )2 - r2 Fk+1 = F(xk+1, yk- ) Fk+1 = (xk +2)2 + (yk+1 - )2 - r2 (2) (1) Fk+1 = Fk + 2(xk+1) + (y2k+1 y2k) - (yk+1 yk) + 1

-------- (1)
-------- (2)

If Fk < 0,
If Fk >= 0,

Fk+1 = Fk + 2xk+1+1 Fk+1 = Fk + 2xk+1+1 2yk+1

37

TCS2111

Midpoint Circle Drawing Algorithm

For the initial point, (x0 , y0) = (0, r) f0 = fcircle (1, r- ) = 1 + (r- )2 r2 = 5r 4 1r

38

TCS2111

Midpoint Circle Drawing Algorithm

Example: Given a circle radius = 10, determine the circle octant in the first quadrant from x=0 to x=y. Solution:

f0 = 5 r 4
= 5 10 4 = -8.75 9
39

TCS2111

Midpoint Circle Drawing Algorithm

Initial (x0, y0) = (1,10) Decision parameters are: 2x0 = 2, 2y0 = 20
k Fk x y 2xk+1 2yk+1

0
1 2 3

-9
-9+2+1=-6 -6+4+1=-1 -1+6+1=6

1
2 3 4

10
10 10 9

2
4 6 8

20
20 20 18

4
5 6

6+8+1-18=-3
-3+10+1=8 8+12+1-16=5

5
6 7

9
8 7

10
12 14

18
16 14
40

TCS2111

Midpoint Circle Drawing Algorithm

void circleMidpoint (int xCenter, int yCenter, int radius) { int x = 0; Int y = radius; int f = 1 radius; circlePlotPoints(xCenter, yCenter, x, y); while (x < y) { x++; if (f < 0) f += 2*x+1; else { y--; f += 2*(x-y)+1; } } circlePlotPoints(xCenter, yCenter, x, y); }

41

TCS2111

Midpoint Circle Drawing Algorithm

void circlePlotPoints (int xCenter, int yCenter, int x, int y) { setPixel (xCenter + x, yCenter + y); setPixel (xCenter x, yCenter + y); setPixel (xCenter + x, yCenter y); setPixel (xCenter x, yCenter y); setPixel (xCenter + y, yCenter + x); setPixel (xCenter y, yCenter + x); setPixel (xCenter + y, yCenter x); setPixel (xCenter y, yCenter x); }

42

Antialiasing

43

Antialiasing
Antialiasing is a technique used to diminish the jagged edges of an image or a line, so that the line appears to be smoother; by changing the pixels around the edges to intermediate colors or gray scales. Eg. Antialiasing disabled:

Eg. Antialiasing enabled:

44

Antialiasing (OpenGL)

Antialiasing disabled

Antialiasing enabled

Setting antialiasing option for lines: glEnable (GL_LINE_SMOOTH);

Fill Area Algorithms

46

Fill Area Algorithms

Fill-Area algorithms are used to fill the interior of a polygonal shape. Many algorithms perform fill operations by first identifying the interior points, given the polygon boundary.

47

Basic Filling Algorithm

The basic filling algorithm is commonly used in interactive graphics packages, where the user specifies an interior point of the region to be filled.

4-connected pixels

48

Basic Filling Algorithm

[1] Set the user specified point. [2] Store the four neighboring pixels in a stack. [3] Remove a pixel from the stack. [4] If the pixel is not set, Set the pixel Push its four neighboring pixels into the stack [5] Go to step 3 [6] Repeat till the stack is empty.
49

Basic Filling Algorithm (Code)

void fill(int x, int y) { if(getPixel(x,y)==0){ setPixel(x,y); fill(x+1,y); fill(x-1,y); fill(x,y+1); fill(x,y-1); } }

50

Basic Filling Algorithm

Requires an interior point.

Involves considerable amount of stack operations. The boundary has to be closed.

Not suitable for self-intersecting polygons
51

Types of Basic Filling Algorithms

Boundary Fill Algorithm

For filling a region with a single boundary color. Condition for setting pixels:

Color is not the same as border color Color is not the same as fill color

Flood Fill Algorithm

For filling a region with multiple boundary colors. Condition for setting pixels:

Color is same as the old interior color

52

TCS2111

Boundary Fill Algorithm (Code)

void boundaryFill(int x, int y, int fillColor, int borderColor) { getPixel(x, y, color); if ((color != borderColor) && (color != fillColor)) { setPixel(x,y); boundaryFill(x+1,y,fillColor,borderColor); boundaryFill(x-1,y,fillColor,borderColor); boundaryFill(x,y+1,fillColor,borderColor); boundaryFill(x,y-1,fillColor,borderColor); } } 53

TCS2111

Flood Fill Algorithm (Code)

void floodFill(int x, int y, int fillColor, int oldColor) { getPixel(x, y, color); if (color != oldColor) { setPixel(x,y); floodFill(x+1, y, fillColor, oldColor); floodFill(x-1, y, fillColor, oldColor); floodFill(x, y+1, fillColor, oldColor); floodFill(x, y-1, fillColor, oldColor); } }

54

Filling Polygons (OpenGL)

Enabling polygon fill (Default): glPolygonMode(GL_FRONT_AND_BACK, GL_FILL); Disabling polygon fill: glPolygonMode(GL_FRONT_AND_BACK, GL_LINE);