EMFT

Gausss Law

Recall
Divergence literally means to get farther
apart from a line of path, or
To turn or branch away from.

Consider the velocity vector of a
cyclist not diverted by any thoughts or
obstacles:
Goes straight ahead at
constant velocity.
(degree of) divergence 0

Now suppose they turn with a constant velocity
diverges from original direction
(degree of) divergence = 0

Now suppose they turn and speed up.
diverges from original direction
(degree of) divergence >> 0

Current of water
No divergence from original direction
(degree of) divergence = 0

Current of water
Divergence from original direction
(degree of) divergence 0

Source
Place where something originates.
Divergence > 0.



Sink
Place where something disappears.
Divergence < 0.



Derivation of Divergence Theorem
Suppose we have a cube that is infinitesimally small.
one of six faces
i
n

Vector field, V(x,y,z)

x
y
z

Need the concept of flux:
water through an area
current through an area



water flux per cross-sectional area (flux
density implies
(total) flux = = scaler.
j

A
A

A j

-

Lets assume the vector, V(x,y,z),
represents something that flows, then
flux through one face of the cube is:


For example might be:

and
i
n V

-

i
n

x n

dydz
yz
=
dydz V dydz V
x x
= - x x


The following six contributions for each
side of the cube are obtained:
dydz V
x
dydz V
x

dxdz V
y
dxdz V
y

dxdy V
z
dxdy V
z

Now consider the opposite faces of the
infinitesimally small cube.






This holds equivalently for the two other pairs of faces.
i
n

x
y
z
dx
x
V
V V
x
x x
c
c
+ =
1
1 2
dx
2 x
V
1 x
V
differential change of V
x
over dx
vector magnitude on the input
side.

i
n

x
y
z
dx
x
V
V V
x
x x
c
c
+ =
1 2
dx
2 x
V
1 x
V
dydz V dydz V
x x
= - x x

and
dydz dx
x
V
V dydz dx
x
V
V
x
x
x
x
(

c
c
+
(

c
c
+
2
1
1
Flux in the x-direction.

Divergence Theorem
Divergence Theorem
Gausss Theorem
Valid for any vector field
Valid for any volume,
Whatever the shape.
z y x
V
z
V
y
V
x
V V div
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= - V =

Note that the above only applies to the
Cartesian coordinate system.

Since Gausss law can be applied to
any vector field, it certainly holds for
the electric field, and the
electric flux density, .


The use of in this context instead of
is historical.
( ) z y x , , E

( ) z y x , , D

s d D dV D
S V

- = - V
} }

D

If Gausss law is true in general, it should
be applicable to a point charge.
Constuct a virtual sphere around a positive
charge with radius, R.





must be radially outward along the unit
vector, .
+
q
D

d

} } }
= - = -
S S S
s Dd s d D d R R s D

} } }
= =
S S S
d d R D s d D s Dd | u u sin
2
} }
t t
| u u
0
2
0
2
sin d d DR
}
t
u u t
0
2
sin 2 d DR
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
0
2
4 1 1 2 cos 2 DR DR DR t t u t
t
= =

What about the volume integral?





only has a component along the
radius vector
( ) ( )
| u
u
u u
|
u
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= - V
}
D
R
D
R
D R
R R
dV
R
V
sin
1
sin
sin
1 1
2
2
D

( ) ( )
| u
u
u u
|
u
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= - V
D
R
D
R
D R
R R
R
sin
1
sin
sin
1 1
2
2
D

0 , 0 , 0 = = =
| u
D D D
R
D

( )
R
D R
R R
2
2
1
c
c
= - V D

( )
} } } }
c
c
= - V
t t
| u u
2
0 0 0
2 2
2
sin
1
d d dR R D R
R R
dV D
R
R
V

t 4
( ) ( )
} }
c
c
=
c
c
=
R
R
R
R
dR D R
R
dR R D R
R R
0
2
0
2 2
2
4
1
4 t t
What is this?
t tc
c c
4 4
1
2
2
q
R D
R
q
E D
R
o
o R o R
= = =

Throw in some physics!
2
4
1
R
q
E D
R R
tc
c c = =
( ) q q dR
R
q dR
R
q
R
R
R R R
} } }
= c =
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
0 0 0
2
2
1
4
4
t
t
integration and
differentiation cancel out


So what?




Coulombs law and Gausss law are
equivalent for a point charge!
q dV d DR
V S
= - V = - =
} }
D s D

4
2
t
q R
o
=
2
4 E

tc
2
4
1
R
q
o
tc
= E

q dV d DR
V S
= - V = - =
} }
D s D

4
2
t
divergence
theorem

q dV d DR
V S
= - V = - =
} }
D s D

4
2
t
Gausss Law

Because of its greater mathematical
versatility, Gausss law rather than
Coulombs law is a fundamental postulate
of electrostatics.
A postulate is believed to be true, although no
proof may be possible.



Any surface of an arbitrary volume.
Q dV d
V S
= - V = -
} }
D s D

Note




which infers
s D D

d dV Q dV
S V V
V
- = - V = =
} } }

definition of
charge distribution
Gausss Law
V
= - V D

Differential form of
Gausss Law

Maxwell Equation



One of two Maxwell equations for
electrostatics.
V
= - V D

t
D
J H
t
B
E
B
D
c
c
+ = V
c
c
= V
= V
= V

Electric flux density or

Displacement Field [C/m
2
]
Charge Density [C]
Magnetic Induction [Weber/m
2

or Tesla]]
Magnetic Field [A/m] Current Density [A/m
2
]
Electric Field [V/m]
Time [s]
Page 139

t
E
J H
t
H
E
H
E
r
r
r
r
c
c
+ = V
c
c
= V
= V
= V
) (
) (
0 ) (
) (
0
0
0
0

c c


c c
Page 139

Use Gausss law to obtain an
expression for the E-field from an
infinitely long line of charge.
constant
l
=
0
X
) (r E

Symmetry Conditions
Infinite line of charge



0 = =
| |
E D
0 = =
z z
E D
r

r r
D D =

Gausss law considers a hypothetical
closed surface enclosing the charge
distribution.
This Gaussian surface can have any shape,
but the shape that minimizes our calculations
is the shape often used.
constant
l
=
0
D

d
Q d
S
=
}
s D

h

The total charge inside the Gaussian
volume is:

The integral is:


The right and left surfaces do not contribute
since.
h Q
l
=
dz rd D d
h
o
r
S
|
t
r r s D

2
0
- = -
} } }

0 =
z
D

} }
=
t
|
2
0
h
o
r
dz d r D
r hD
r
t 2 =
and
h r hD
l r
t = 2
r o
l
r
E
r
D c
t

= =
2

Two infinite lines of charge.
Each carrying a charge density,
l
.
Each parallel to the z-axis at
x = 1 and x = -1.

What is the E-field at any point along the y-axis?
constant
l
=
constant
l
=
x
z
1
1

For a single line of constant charge


Using the principle of superposition of
fields:
r
E
o
l
r
tc

2
=
2 1
E E E

+ =
tot

x
x
y
z
1
-1
1
r
2
r
) 0 , , 0 ( y E

( ) ( )
2
2 2
1
1 0 1 0 y y r + = + =
1
1

r
y x
r
y +
=
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
2
1 0 1 0 y y r + = + =
2
2

r
y x
r
y +
=
( ) ( )
(

+
+
+
+
+
=
2 2
1

1

2 y
y
y
y
o
l
tot
y x y x
E
tc

Only interested in the y-component of the
field
( ) ( )
(

+
+
+
=
2 2
1

2 y
y
y
y
o
l
tot
y y
E
tc

( )
(

+
=
2
1
2
2 y
y
o
l
tot
y
E
tc

( )
(

+
=
2
1

y
y
o
l
tot
y
E
tc

A spherical volume of radius a
contains a uniform charge density
V.
Determine for
and


E D

c =
a R s
a R >
+
q
D

d
Note: Charge distribution for
an atomic nucleus where
a = 1.210
-15
m - A

(A is the
mass number)

Outside the sphere (R > a), use
Gausss Law

To take advantage of symmetry, use
the spherical coordinates:

and
}
-
S
ds D

| u u d d R ds sin
2
=
r D

r
D =

Field is always perpendicular for any
sphere around the volume.
The left hand side of Gausss Law is
} } } }
= - = -
t t
| u u | u u
0
2
0
2 2
sin sin

d d R D d d R D d
R
S
R
S
R R s D

2
2
4
4
R
Q
D Q R D
R R
t
t = = =
t 4 =

Recall that
dV dV
V
V
V
} }
= - V D

V
= - V D

} } } }
=
t t
| u u
0
2
0 0
2
sin
a
V
V
V
d dRd R dV
} } } }
=
t t
| u u
0
2
0 0
2
sin
a
V
V
V
dR R d d dV
t 4 =

Q
a
dR R
V
a
V
= =
}
3
4 4
3
0
2
t t
2
3
2
3
2
3 3 4
4
4 R
a
R
a
R
Q
D
V V
R

t
t
t
=
-
= =

Inside the sphere (R s a), use
Gausss Law

Q dV d
V
V
S
= = -
} }
s D

2
4 R D
R
t
previously calculated

} } } }
=
R
V
V
V
d dRd R dV
0 0
2
0
2
sin
t t
| u u
}
=
R
V
dR R
0
2
4t
3
4
3
R
V
t
=
3
4
4
3
2
R
R D
V
R
t
t =
3
R
D
V
R

=

Thin spherical shell
Find E-field for
and


a R s
a R >
constant
S
=
0
S
=
a

Inside ( )
Gausss Law





This is only possible if .
a R s
constant
S
=
0
S
=
a
0

= = -
}
Q d
S
s D

0 D

=

Outside ( )
Gausss Law





a R >
constant
S
=
0
S
=
a
} }
= = -
S
S
S
dS Q d s D

} } }
=
t t
| u u
0
2
0
2
sin d d a dS
S
S
S
2
4 a dS
S
S
S
t =
}
2
4 R D
R
t
previously calculated

2 2
4 4 a R D
S R
t t =
2
2
R
a
D
S R
=

An electric field is given as



Determine

Q in a 2m 2m 2m cube.
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
m
V
y x y x z y x 2 3

1
, , + + = y x E
c

Maxwells equation of
Electrostatics
z
x
y
E D

div div
V
c = =
( ) ( ) y x
y
y x
x
div 2 3 2
c
c
+ +
c
c
= E

c
0 0 2 2 = = =
V
div c E

z
x
y
Q d
S
= -
}
s D

( ) dydz y x x x

2
2
0
2
0
- +
} }
For the surface 1 directed in the x-direction.
( )dydz y x
} }
+
2
0
2
0
2
( )( ) ( )
2
0
2
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
4 4 2
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + = +
} }
y
xy dy y x dy z y x
1

8 8
2
4
2
0
2
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ x
y
xy
z
x
y
1
2
For the surface 2 directed in the -x-direction.
( ) dydz y x x x

2
2
0
2
0
- +
} }
( ) ( ) 8 8 2
2
0
2
0
+ = +
} }
x dydz y x

z
x
y
3
For the surface 3 & 4 directed in the z- & -z
directions.
4
0

= -
}
S
ds D

z
x
y
For the surface 5 directed in the y-direction.
5
( ) dxdz y x y y

2 3
2
0
2
0
-
} }
( )dxdz y x
} }

2
0
2
0
2 3
( ) ( )dx y x dx yz xz
} }
=
2
0
2
0
2
0
4 6 2 3
y xy
x
8 12 4
2
6
2
0
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

z
x
y
For the surface 6 directed in the -y-direction.
6
( ) dxdz y x y y

2 3
2
0
2
0
-
} }
( )dxdz y x
} }

2
0
2
0
2 3
( ) y 8 12 =

By superposition


Indeed, there is no charge in the cube.
0

= -
}
S
ds D

Find in all regions of an infinitely
long cylindrical shell.
Inner shell( )
Cylindrical volume.
D

0
V
=
constant
V
=
3
1
1 s r
0

= = -
}
Q d
S
s D

Shell itself ( )
Cylindrical coordinates.
0
V
=
constant
V
=
3
1
3 1 s s r
dz rd D d
h
r
S
|
t
r r s D

2
0 0
- = -
} } }

r
D

d
h
r

dz rd D dz rd D
h
r
h
r
| |
t t
} } } }
= -
2
0 0
2
0 0

r r
rh D d rh D dz d r D
r r
h
r
t | |
t t
2
2
0
2
0 0
} } }
= = =
Top and bottom face of cylinder do
not contribute to . D

} } }
r h
V
dz rdrd
1
2
0 0
t
|

dr r h dz rdrd
r
V
r h
V
} } } }
=
1 1
2
0 0
2t |
t
( ) 1
2
2
2
1
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= r h
r
h
V
r
V
t t
} }
= -
V
V
S
dV d s D

) 1 ( 2
2
= r h rh D
V r
t t

) 1 ( 2
2
= r h rh D
V r
t t
r
r
D
V
r
) 1 (
2
2