Notes For Bba & Bcs Students

Chapter No.
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Introduction to computer
This chapter covers the following topics Introduction History of computers in terms of generations Uses of computers in different fields of life
Prepared by: xulcurnain sikandar
Introduction to computer
Definition of computer
A computer is calculating device. The word computer is derived from Latin word Computare which means to compute or to calculate. A computer is a machine that accepts, processes and gives the result on the display device. It can also store the data on storage devices. The data can be numeric data, character type or audio, video etc.
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Definition
An electronic device that process data, converting it into information that is useful to people. Any computer is controlled by programmed instructions, which give the machine a purpose and tell it what to do.
Types of Computers
The classification of computers is based on the following categories. According to purpose According to technology used According to size and storage capacity According to historical advancement
Prepared by: Xulcurnain Sikandar
Classification Of Computers Based On

Purpose Technology Size & Capacity Analog General Purpose Special Purpose Digital Hybrid Microcomputer History Super Mainframes Minicomputer
Zero Generation
2nd Generation
3rd Generation
4th Generation
5th Generation
1st Generation
According to Purpose

According to utilization of computers for different uses, computers are of following two types. General Purpose Computers: Computers that follow instructions for general requirements such as sales analysis, financial accounting, invoicing, inventory, management information etc are called as general purpose computers. Almost all computers used in offices for commercial, educational and other applications are general purpose computers.
Special Purpose Computers Computers that are designed from scratch to perform special tasks like scientific applications and research, weather forecasting, space applications, medical diagnostics etc are called as special purpose computers.
According to Size and storage

According to the size and memory/storage capacity, computers are of the following four types.
Super computers
Super computer is the biggest and the fastest computer which is mainly designed for complex scientific applications. It has many CPUs which operate in parallel to make it as fastest computer. It is typically used for the following applications. Weather information Petroleum exploration and production Energy management Defense Nuclear energy research Electronic design Medicine Some of the examples of super computers are CRAY 3, CRAY-XMP-14, NEC-500, PARAM 9000 and PARAM 10000.
Prepared by: Xulcurnain Sikandar 8
Mainframe computers:
Main frame computers are very large ad fast computers but smaller and slower that the super computers. They are used in a centralized location where many terminals (input /output devices ) are connected with one CPU and thus allow many different users to share a single CPU. All this works through a network. They have a very high memory and support thousand of users. They are mainly used for the following applications: Railway and airline reservations Banking applications Commercial applications of large industries and companies. Some of the examples of main frame computers are the following. IBM 3090 IBM 4381 IBM 4300 Prepared by: Xulcurnain 10 Sikandar IBM ES-9000
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Minicomputers
Minicomputers are medium-scale and generally slower than mainframe computers. Like main frame computers, they have many terminals which are connected with one CPU and can support many users. The cost of a minicomputer is lesser as compared to mainframe computers. Therefore it is mainly used in applications where processing can be distributed among several minicomputers rather than using a main frame computers. Some of the examples of minicomputers are PDP 1, DEC Micro VAX and IBM AS/400. IBM AS/400 which is actually a minicomputer is becoming very popular among minicomputers.
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Micro computer A microcomputer is the smallest digital computer which uses microprocessor as its CPU. Microprocessor is a single chip CPU. Micro computers are popularly called as personal computers (PC). It can be used both as a standalone machine and a terminal in a multi user environment. Microcomputers are becoming very popular now a days to a very high processing power and memory. Today a a powerful microcomputer may be used as substitute for mini and main frame computer. Microcomputers are either desktop or portable model. Portable computers can be carried from one place to another. Some of the models are called as laptops while the others are called as note book computers. Notebook computers are smaller, lighter and costlier than the laptops. Desktop computers fit on to o desktop and are used widely in offices and homes. Some of the examples of the microcomputers are Pentium computers etc.
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According to technology used

According to technology used computers are of following three types. Analog Computers Analog computers are special purpose computers that represent and store the data in continuously varying physical quantities such as current, voltage or frequency. These computers are programmed for measuring physical quantities like pressure, temperature, speed etc. and to perform calculations on these measurements.
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It measures continuous changes in some physical quantities. For example speedometer of a car measures the speed in terms of km/h or m/s, the change of temperature is measured by a thermometer in degrees. In these computers data is not converted into numbers or codes. In other words we say that it is a computer that which deals with the variables that are measured along a continuous scale and are recorded onto some pre determined degree of accuracy.
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It also represents the physical quantities such as distance, velocity, acceleration, temperature, pressure etc. analog computers dont require any storage capability because they measure and compare quantities in a single operation. Output from an analog computer is generally in the form of reading on a series of dial like in speedometer of a car or a graph on a strip chart.
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Analog computers are mainly used for scientific and engineering applications. Some of the examples of the analog computers are: Thermometer: It is a simple analog computer used to measure temperature. In thermometer, the mercury moves up and down as the temperature varies (changes). Speedometer: Cars speedometer is another example of analog computer here the position of the needle on the dial represents the speed of the car.
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Digital computers:
Digital computers are mainly general purpose computers that represent and store the data in discrete quantities or numbers. In these computers, all processing is done in terms of numeric representation (binary digits) of data and information. Although the user enters the data in decimal or character form it is converted into binary digits. Almost all the computers used now a days are digital computers.
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The results of digital computers are more accurate, precise and repeatable than the analog computers. Analog computers are faster than the digital computers. Analog computers lack memory where as digital computers store the information. Example: The most common example of digital computer is calculator
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Hybrid Computers:
Hybrid computers incorporate the technology of both the analog and digital computers. These computers store and process analog signals which have been converted into discrete numbers using analog to digital converters. They can also convert the digital numbers into analog signals or physical properties using digital to analog converters. They have the speed of analog computers and accuracy of digital computers.
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They are mainly used in specialized applications where both kinds of information needs to be processed. These computers are designed to perform special tasks in which different measurements are converted into digits and are processed by the computers. For example air defense system and different laboratory equipments for medicine etc. Hybrid computers are mainly used in artificial intelligence (robotics) and computer aided manufacturing (Process control)
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History OF Computer
Computer did not appear on the screen immediately but they have been in use for a long time in different forms. Initially computer was develop as a computing machine but with the passage of time a lot of changes in the machine made it most effective and it became the revolutionary invention of this century. Today there are billion of computers all around us covering all most all fields of life.
So the history of computer development can be explained in terms of different generations of computing devices. In each generation of computer, a major technological development occurred that fundamentally changed the way computers operate and the result was that the computers became: Smaller in size Cheaper in cost, and More powerful and faster in speed and More efficient and reliable devices.
Zero Generation Of Computers
Abacus It is the basis of modern computer. It was used by the Chinese for calculation purposes in 3000 BC. The main difference between various types of abacus is the way in which numbers are represented but basically they are similar.
In 1617 John Napier made a first calculating device consisting of set of numbered rods called as Napier Bones. This device was faster and more accurate than the Abacus.
In 1642 Blais Pascal invented the first mechanical calculator called as Pascaline. The numbers from 0 through 9 were marked on the circumference of the small wheels. In 1694, Gottfried Leibnitz completed a model of multiplying calculator capable of performing both multiplication and division.
Charles Babbage learnt of punched cards and adopted the concept of his analytical engine.
Charles Babbage made the first computer called as Analytical Engine. Which could perform calculations and printing mathematical tables automatically using the punched cards. In 1886 American William Boroughs introduced the first commercially successful mechanical adding machine. In 1890 Dr. Herman Hollerith developed the first Electromechanical punch card tabulator which was driven by electricity and could sort and select the data. In 1930 Bush made the first analog computer.
The zeroth generation of computers or the era of mechanical computers ended in 1946 when vacuum tubes were invented.
First Generation - 1940-1956
First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunction (Failure). First generation computers used machine language, the lowestlevel programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.
The summary is:

Vacuum tubes ware the only electronic components. It perform calculation in mile second. Very big size, Unreliable, Not portable, Air-condition required, Expensive just rich people used. ABC was the first electronic Computer. Was used for scientific applications.
Second Generation
Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

Transistors were used in the second generation of computers. The transistor was better than the vacuum tube because due to transistors computers became smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than the first-generation computers. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat due to which computers were damaged, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
In second generation of computers, symbolic or assembly language was used and the programmers would give instructions to the computers in words. High level programming languages were also being developed during this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.
Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

The third generation of computer used ICs in place of transistors. Hundred of transistors were to be put on single small circuit, so IC is more compact than the transistors. The third generation of computers removed many drawbacks of the first generation computers. The third generation computers were smaller in size, generated very less heat, required less power as compared to earlier version of computer generations.
These computers required less human labor to assemble the computer components. They were faster and reliable than the other generations. Had less storage capacity, relatively slower performance and thus could not fulfill the requirements of users and programmers. The examples are: IBM 360 POP- 8 PDP-11 CRAY-1 VAX
Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors
The fourth generation of computers used large scale integrated circuits in place of ICs. Millions of components were combined together to form VLSI. VLSI is the latest technology that led to the development of the popular Personal Computers or PCs also called the microcomputers. All present day computers are fourth generation computers. 4G computers are very fast having a high memory and fast processing speed. Todays PCs are even more powerful than the mainframe computers.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices. There are a lot of advantages of fourth generation computers but still they have a bit disadvantage that they dont have their own intelligence. Examples are: IBM pc CRAY-2 486 Pentium computers are examples of the fourth generation of computers.
Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: (A.I )
The fifth generation computers also called as tomorrows computer are still under research and development stage. These computers would have artificial intelligence. They will use ULSI (Ultra large scale integration) chips in place of VLSI chips. The most important feature of the fifth generation of computer is that they will use intelligent software. This software will enable the user to tell the computer what to do and not and how to do by using intelligent programming and knowledge based problem solving techniques. So the programmer or user would not give each and every instruction to the computer for solving the problems.
Uses of Computer
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Computer has a great influence on different fields of life. Computers are used every where. They are used in applications ranging from running a farm, diagnosing a disease, and designing to constructing and launching a space vehicle. Because the development of computers has been largely the work of scientists, it is natural that a large body of computer applications serves the scientist. Here we will discuss the use of computers in different fields of life. The uses are as follows:
Word Processing Word Processing software automatically corrects spelling and grammar mistakes. If the content of a document repeats you dont have to type it each time. You can use the copy and paste features. You can printout documents and make several copies. It is easier to read a word-processed document than a handwritten one. You can add images to your document.
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Internet It is a network of almost all the computers in the world. You can browse through much more information than you could do in a library. That is because computers can store enormous amounts of information. You also have very fast and convenient access to information. Through E-Mail you can communicate with a person sitting thousands of miles away in seconds. There is chat software that enables one to chat with another person on a real-time basis. Video conferencing tools are becoming readily available to the common man.
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Digital video or audio composition Audio or video composition and editing have been made much easier by computers. It no longer costs thousands of dollars of equipment to compose music or make a film. Graphics engineers can use computers to generate short or fulllength films or even to create three-dimensional models. Anybody owning a computer can now enter the field of media production. Special effects in science fiction and action movies are created using computers.
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Mathematical Calculations With the help of computers, which have computing speeds of over a million calculations per second we can perform the biggest of mathematical calculations. Banks All financial transactions are done by computer software. They provide security, speed and convenience. Computers in Medicine You can diagnose diseases. You can learn the cures. Software is used in imaging to examine the internal organs of the human body. Software is used for performing surgery. Computers are used to store patient data.
Travel One can book air tickets or railway tickets and make hotel reservations online. Telecommunications Software is widely used here. Also all mobile phones have software embedded in them. Defense There is software embedded in almost every weapon. Software is used for controlling the flight and targeting in ballistic missiles. Software is used to control access to atomic bombs.
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E-Learning Instead of a book it is easier to learn from an E-learning software. Gambling You can gamble online instead of going to a casino. Examinations You can give online exams and get instant results. You can check your examination results online.
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Computers in Business Shops and supermarkets use software, which calculate the bills. Taxes can be calculated and paid online. Accounting is done using computers. One can predict future trends of business using artificial intelligence software. Software is used in major stock markets. One can do trading online. There are fully automated factories running on software.
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Certificates Different types of certificates can be generated. It is very easy to create and change layouts. ATM machines The computer software authenticates the user and dispenses cash. Marriage There are matrimonial sites through which one can search for a suitable groom or bride. News There are many websites through which you can read the latest or old news.
Classmates There are many alumni websites through which you can regain contact with your classmates. Computers in electronic devices Robotics Robots, washing machines and microwave ovens are operated by software. Sports Software is used for making umpiring decisions. There are simulation software using which a sportsperson can practice his skills. Computers are also to identify flaws in technique.
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Aero planes Pilots train on software, which simulates flying. Weather analysis Supercomputers are used to analyze and predict weather. Scientific Research Computers are used to solve complex scientific problems accurately in a short time. Business Computers are used in banks, airports, share markets, hostels, export houses, government offices, and others for computerizing business applications like MIS, Payroll, inventory and financial accounting etc.
Industry Used in electricity, steel, paper, printing, engineering and other industries for production, inventory control and related applications. Defense Used to computerize war planes, ships, radars and many advanced weapons. Space Used to design computerized space satellites, rockets and related technologies.
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Data Communication and telecommunication Used to connect geographically separated offices through networking. It can also be used for E-mail, Internet, videoconferencing and cellular phones etc. Medicine Used in hospitals and nursing homes and clinics for maintaining medical records, prescription writing, diagnostic applications and computerized scanning etc.
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Education Used in development of CBT (Computer based teaching) or CAT (Computer Aided Teaching) programs for education. Law and Order Used to record the data of vehicles, criminals and finger prints etc. Libraries Used to develop many library management systems. Engineering Used for CAD (Computer Aided Designing)/ CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) by engineering companies.
Chapter No.2
This chapter covers the following topics: Software definition Types of software such as

Programming software System software Application software Compiler Interpreter Assembler
Language translator and its types

Some other types of software
Software
oftware and programs consists of instructions (commands) that tell the computer to perform specific task. There are three types of software.
. Programming Software: his is one of the most commonly known and popularly used forms of computer software. This software comes in forms of tools that assist a programmer in writing computer programs. Computer programs are sets of logical instructions that make a computer system perform certain tasks.
2. System Software:
It helps in running the computer hardware and the computer system. System software is a collection of operating systems, device drivers and utilities. System software helps an application programmer in abstracting away from hardware, memory and other internal complexities of a computer.
Types of System Software

There are two basic types of system software. Operating System. An operating system is the major component of system software in any computing system. The operating system acts as master control program that runs the computer. Examples of operating system are MS- DOS, Windows and Linux etc.
Language Translators
The software that converts the codes of other languages into machine code or machine language is called as Language Translator. Language Translators are categorized into three types. Assemblers Interpreters Compilers
Assemblers
Assemblers translate the assembly language code (source program) into machine language code (object program). After assembling, a linker program is used to convert the object program into an executable program. The Microsoft assembler (MASM) and Borland Turbo assembler program (TASM) are two popular assemblers. Assemblers are used mainly in the development of system software.
Interpreters
Instructions of a high level language are coded in many statements. At the time of their execution, they are converted statement by statement (line by line) into machine code, by using the system software, called as interpreters. For example program written in BASIC language are executed by using BASICA or GWBASICA interpreters. Programs written in in some fourth generation languages like dBase3 plus are also executed using dBase interpreters.
There are certain disadvantages of interpreters. As instructions are translated and executed simultaneously using interpreters, they are very slow for executing large programs. Hence interpreters are not suitable for most of the applications development.
Compilers
In comparison to interpreters, compilers provide faster execution speed. They translate the entire program into machine code. Using the linker, the object code is converted into executable code. Compliers are widely used in translating codes of high languages and fourth generation languages. As compared to interpreter and assemblers, compliers are preferred in development of application software.
Device Drivers
Device drivers are those software which runs different types of hardware like printer, scanner, camera or NIC card etc.
3. Application software
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It is a software that is used to solve particular problem, to perform useful work on specific task and to provide entertainment. Application software is further divided into custom or packaged software.
Custom Software: It is a software that is designed and developed for a particular customer (user). To develop such a software you would hire (appoint) a computer programmer (a software creator) to develop for you. Packaged Software This is a kind of software that is developed for sale to the general public.
Some major categories of application software are given as:
Word Processing Software

These are used to create almost any kind of document like business letters, legal documents, newsletters and even books are produced on word processor. Examples are word star, word perfect and ms word.
Spreadsheet programs
Spread sheet program consists of columns and rows to enter the data. We can put text, numbers or formulas into cells to create work sheets. Example of spread sheet program is MS Excel.
Database Management software

Database Management software is used to organize collection of data stored in your computer. For example Debase, Fox Pro, Access and Oracle.
Multimedia software
A multimedia software is a type of application that uses images, text, sound, computer animation and video etc. Examples are Adobe premier, Coral Draw and Maya.
Presentation software
Presentation software is another type of graphics software that helps you create professional looking visual aids for audience. Example is PowerPoint.
Entertainment programs
Tutorial and games are examples of many types of entertainment programs that are also available.
Edutainment programs
Many education programs can also be considered entertainment software and have been nicknamed as edutainment programs.
Some other types of Software
Shareware
Shareware refers to a copyrighted commercial software that is distributed without payment on a trial basis and is often limited by any combination of functionality, availability or convenience. Shareware is often offered as a download from an internet website or as a compact disc included with a periodical such as a newspaper or magazine. The aim of shareware is to give buyers the opportunity to use the program and judge its usefulness before purchasing a license for the full version of the software.
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Shareware is usually offered as a trial version with certain features only available after the license is purchased, or as a full version, but for a trial period. Once the trial period has passed the program may stop running until a license is purchased. Shareware is often offered without support, updates, or help menus, which only become available with the purchase of a license. The words "free trial", "trial version" are indicative of shareware.

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Retail software
Retail software refers to commercial software available only
When you purchase the license It is a copyrighted software.
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Public domain software

Public domain software refers to a software that is
Not copyright protected and Free and any one can use this software.

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Freeware
Freeware refers to a copyrighted software for which the author receive no payment. It means that it is a software that can be used by the public without any payment to the author but no one is allowed or has the right to copy it or reproduce it in any other form without the permission of the author.
Malware
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Malware is a combination of two words such as malicious (hateful) and software and is a software designed to damage a computer system without the owner's informed consent. Malware includes computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses, spy ware, dishonest Adware, crime ware and other malicious and unwanted software. In law, Malware is sometimes known as a computer contaminant (Pollutant).
Spy ware
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Spy ware is a computer software that is installed secretly on a personal computer to collect information about a user, their computer or browsing habits without the user's informed consent (Permission). Spyware programs can collect various types of personal information, such as Internet surfing habits and sites that have been visited, but can also interfere with user control of the computer in other ways, such as installing additional software etc.
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Spy-ware can also change computer settings, it can slow down internet speeds, loss of internet or it can affect functionality of other programs.
Adware
It is a software that is used for the advertisement purpose by the companies on the internet.
Crime ware
This software is launched to create negative impression (feeling) like arousing (exciting) the user for robbery, theft and other criminal activities while using the internet.
Chapter No. 3
Operating system
This chapter includes the following topics Introduction to operating system Components of operating system Types of operating system
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An operating system is a collection of system programs that controls the overall operation of the computer system. These programs acts as interface between hardware, application programs files and the user. In other words we can say that Operating system is a computer program that prepares the computer to be used by the human user and helps the user to run the application program. In simple words we can say that: It is a bridge between hardware and software.
Types of Operating System
Single User Operating System

A single user operating system satisfies the needs of a single user and all the resources are available to this user. A single user operating system provides access to the computer system by a single user at a time. If another user needs to access the computer system, they must wait till the current user finishes what they are doing and leaves.
This type of operating system can run only one type of program at a time and hence called single user or single task system. In single user operating system the function of the O.S are simple. DOS and Macintosh are example of single user operating system.
Multi User Operating System

Large computer such as mainframes can perform more functions than the micro computers are more complex, Therefore the operating system required for such a system must be able to run several jobs at a one time. Such type of operating systems are called as multi user operating system. A multi user operating system supports more than one user at a time. A multi user operating system lets more than one user access the computer at one time.
Access to the computer is normally provided via the network, so that the users can access the computer remotely using a terminal or other computer. Now a days multi user operating system have been designed for the microcomputers as well. Example of multi user operating system are Unix Linux and main frames such as IBM AS400.
Components of Operating System
Operating system consists of two major types of programs which are further subdivided into different sections.
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Control Programs
Control programs allows the communication between the user and computer and manages the overall operations of the computer and ensures that they are running properly. Control program are further subdivided into four main parts which are as follows.
2. Services program

Besides controlling the system the OS contains some services programs that supports an OS. These services are available in an OS for both application s/w and hardware and even for the system s/w. Service program has following sections.
Chapter No. 4
Data Communication & Network
Data Communication
Data Communications is the transfer of data or information between a source and a receiver. The source transmits the data and the receiver receives it. The electronic systems that transfer the data from one point to the other are called as the data communication systems. Data Communication is interested in the transfer of data, the method of transfer and the preservation of the data during the transfer process
Basic elements of a communication system
Typically data communication system consists of 3 elements.
Sender
A sender is one who transfers or transmits the data. The sender is also called the source.
Medium
A medium is any thing that carries the signal. The medium can be some thing physical like a cable or it can be medium like radio waves or satellite etc.
Receiver
A receiver is the computer or party who gets or receives the message. A receiver is also called a sink.
A simple example showing the above fact.

For example you want to share or send the data to your friend. In this case you are the sender of the data. Your friend who receives the data is called as receiver of the data or the sink. The cable that connects the computer and send your data to your friends computer is the medium.
Computer Network

A computer network can also be defined as "interconnected collection of autonomous computers". The computers are said to be inter-connected if they are able to exchange information with each other. Autonomous means that no computer on the network is able to start stop or affect the functionality of other computer.
Network Continued .
A network is a collection of computers, printers, routers, switches, and other devices that are able to communicate with each other over some transmission media. The media can be wired like cables or wireless. The concept of connecting the computers is called as the networking.
Goals of computer Network

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Sharing information or data like files etc. Sharing hardware and software Centralizing administration E-mail message Word-processing Software Photographs ,videos, and audio files Live audio and video broadcasts Printers Fax machines Modems CD-ROM drives Hard drives
Typical Network
Merits/Advantages of computer networking
Efficient management of resources: Networks allow efficient management of the resources. For example, multiple users can share a single high-quality printer rather than having multiple, possibly lower quality printers on the individual computers. Centralized management: A well managed centralized data storage system allows multiple users to access the date from different locations. Speedy data sharing: Networks help speed up data sharing. Transferring files across network is always faster than other non network means of sharing the files.
E-mail facility:
Computer network also provides e-mail facility and through email the individuals or users can communicate with each other more efficiently.
Data preservation:
A network also can be used to preserve the information. It means that we can take back up of the data to a central location so that it is away from the loss.
Security:
A network provide more secure environment for the important information. On the network each user has his username and password and unauthorized user can not access the data.
Components of a Network
Servers
Servers are computers that provide the shared resources to the networked users. It means that the servers provide different services to the network users. The services include e-mail service, file service etc. Server computer often use the server operating system like windows 2003 server etc.
Clients
Clients are computers that use the services provided by the server. For example a user that uses a web page is a client because this web page is supplied by the web server. Clients can use server operating system or client operating system like windows xp etc.
Components Continued
Media Media refers to any thing thru which computers and other network devices are connected. For example a cable or wire is a medium. Resources Files, printers or other items that are used by the network users are called as the resources of the network.
Types of network according to Logic 1. Server based Network or client-server network

In server based network there is a server that is responsible to provide security and administration of the network. In this network the clients request the services like the printer and file sharing while the servers deliver those services to the clients. In a server based network resources are located on a central server or a group of servers. The server controls the resources such as data and printers etc that the clients need to access. The server is not only a faster computer with a better computer, but it requires much more storage space to contain all the data that needs to be shared by the clients.
2. Peer to Peer Network or Workgroups
The simplest form of networking is peer to peer network. Each workstation/computer works as both client and server. There is no central server to maintain the data. Data and other resources are distributed through out the network and the user is responsible for sharing the data and resources connected to their system. In this network clients operating system such as Windows 95, windows 98 and windows xp etc can be used. Peer to peer network is suitable for small network where security is not a concern. In this network every user uses his password and username and uses the computer.
Types of Networks according to geographical area
Local Area Network (LAN)
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computers and network communication devices within a limited geographic area, such as an office building. They are characterized by the following: High data transfer speeds Generally less expensive technologies Limited geographic area
Local Area Network (LAN)
Metropolitan Area Network
A MAN is a network that spans a metropolitan area such as a city or suburban area. A MAN usually consists of two or more LANs in a common geographic area. For example, a bank with multiple branches may utilize a MAN. Typically, a service provider is used to connect two or more LAN sites using private communication lines or optical services.
Metropolitan Area Network
Wide Area Networks (WAN)

Any physical network technology that is capable of spanning long distances (e.g., cross-country). Operate over a large geographically separated areas Allow users to have real-time communication capabilities with other users Provide full-time remote resources connected to local services Provide e-mail, World Wide Web, file transfer, and e-commerce services
Network Topology
Network topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. Or The way or method through which a network is established is called is topology. Types of topology Star topology Bus topology Ring topology
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Star Topology
This topology resembles a star. In star topology each device has a dedicated path, i.e. point to point. Each device is attached to a central controller called as hub or switch. In this topology the devices are not connected directly to one another but are connected thru hub or switch. Star topology does not allow the devices to send data directly to one another but the hub acts as exchange.
If a device wants to send data to another device then it must send this data to hub first, and from the hub the data is sent to the destination device.
Ring Topology
In ring topology the devices are connected in such a way that it forms a ring, means that the first device is connected to the last one. Each device has dedicated point to point connection only with the two neighbor computers. In this topology the signal is passed from one direction from device to device until it reaches to its destination.
Here each device has a repeater which is used to regenerate the signal if it is not destined to this device. These regenerated signals are then passed to another device along the ring.
Bus Topology
In bus topology all the devices are connected to a single medium. This single medium is called as backbone of the network. This topology is an example of multipoint also called as multi drop because more than two devices are connected to a single link. In this topology all the devices or nodes are connected to backbone (central cable) through drop line or the cable. Here the drop line is a connection between the node and the backbone while the tap is connector that connects the nodes to the backbone.
In bus topology at the ends of backbone a device called terminator is required which stops the signal from going back and forth in the network. Here the signal reaches all the devices but it is accepted by destination device.
Chapter No. 5
Internet and related Concepts
This chapter includes the following topics Introduction to internet History of internet Important terminologies relating the internet E-Mail Web Browser Etc
Internet

Internet is a network of networks. A global communication system that links together thousands of individual networks. These connection allows computers to exchange data, to communicate in real time, to share data, and to access limitless stores of information.
Origination of Internet
o o o o
The first indication of Internet appeared in 1969 by the Department of Defense. It connected institutions doing research on defense related projects at national laboratories and the DOD. The network was under the direction of ARPA . Therefore called ARPANET in the days of development.
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o o o o
By the 1970s, 23 universities around the country got connected together thru ARPANet. By 1984, the number of computers connected on ARPANET was over 1,000. At this point, the network began to be known as the Internet. ARPANET was disbanded in 1990, leaving the huge network serving 300,000 computers.
History of the Internet

How did the Internet originate?
ARPANET
Networking project by Pentagons Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
Goal: To allow scientists at different locations to share information
Goal: To work on various projects relating ARPA
Became functional September 1969
History of the Internet

How has the Internet grown?
Today More than 200 million host nodes 1984 More than 1,000 host nodes 1969 Four host nodes
Internet Continued .
What is a domain name?
Text version of Internet protocol (IP) address

Number that uniquely identifies each computer or device connected to Internet
The World Wide Web

What is the World Wide Web (WWW)?
A worldwide collection of electronic documents

Also called the Web
Each electronic document is called a Web page Can contain text, graphics, sound, video, and built-in connections A Web site is a collection of related Web pages
The World Wide Web

What is a Web browser?
A software that allows you to view Web sites over the internet
Microsoft Internet Explorer
Netscape
Safari
Mozilla
Opera
The World Wide Web

What is a home page?

The first page that a Web site presents Often provides connections to other Web pages
The World Wide Web

What is downloading?
It is a process in which we take the data from server computer on the internet and then put the same data on the client computer Depending upon connection speed, downloading can take from a few seconds to several minutes
The World Wide Web

What is a URL?
URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator, which means it is a uniform (same throughout the world) way to locate a resource (file or document) on the Internet.
Unique address for a Web page

A web server delivers the Web page to your computer
The World Wide Web

What is a link?
Built-in connection to another related Web page location

Item found elsewhere on same Web page Different Web page at same Web site Web page at a different Web site
The World Wide Web

How can you recognize links?
Pointer changes to a small hand when you point to a link A link can be text or an image Text links are usually underlined and in a different color
The World Wide Web

What is a search engine?
Program used to find Web sites and Web pages by entering words or phrases called search text
Also called a keyword
The World Wide Web

What is a hit?
Any Web site name that is listed as the result of a search

Step 2.
Select type of search you want to run
Step 1. Go to search engine
Step 3. View hits
Step 4.
Click link to view Web site Prepared by: xulcurnain sikandar
The World Wide Web

What is multimedia?
Application integrating text with other media elements

Graphics Animation Audio Video Virtual reality
The World Wide Web

What is a thumbnail?
Small version of a larger graphicused to improve Web page display time

Usually click on thumbnail to display larger graphic
The World Wide Web

What is audio?

Music, speech, or any other sound Individual compressed sound files that you download from the Web to your computer
Common Web audio file formats are AA, AAC, AIFF, ASF, MP3, WAV, WMA, RA, and QT
Once downloaded, you can play (listen to) the contents of the files
The World Wide Web

What are plug-ins?

Programs that extend the capability of a browser You can download many plug-ins at no cost from various Web sites
Web Publishing
What is Web publishing?
Development and maintenance of Web pages

Step 2. Step 1.
Plan the Web site Analyze and design the Web site
Step 3. Step 5.
Maintain the Web site Create the Web site
Step 4.
Deploy the Web site
Other Internet Services

What is E-mail?

Short for electronic mail The transmission of messages and files via a computer network
Messages can consist of simple text or can contain attachments, such as documents, graphics, or audio/video clips Internet access providers usually provide an e-mail program Some Web sitessuch as MSN Hotmail and Yahoo!provide free e-mail services
One of the original services on the Internet

How do you send an e-mail message?
Step 1.
Start an e-mail program (Microsoft Outlook, for example)
Step 2.
Click the New Mail Message button
Step 3.
Enter the recipients e-mail address, the subject, and the message
Step 5.
The recipient opens the message
Step 4.
Click the Insert file button if you want to attach a picture, for example, and click SendPrepared by: xulcurnain sikandar

What is an e-mail address?
Unique name that consists of a user name and domain name that identifies the user

How does an e-mail message travel?
Step 1.
Using e-mail software, you create and send message
Step 2.
Your software contacts software on your ISPs outgoing mail server
Step 4.
When recipient uses e-mail software to check for e-mail messages, the message transfers from incoming mail server to recipients computer
Step 3.
Software on outgoing mail server determines best route for data and sends Prepared by: xulcurnain message, which travels along Internet routers to recipients incoming mail server sikandar

What is FTP?
File Transfer ProtocolInternet standard that allows you to upload and download files with other computers on the Internet

What is a mailing list?
Group of e-mail addresses given a single name When a message is sent to the mailing list, everyone on the list receives the message To add your name to a mailing list you must subscribe to it; to remove your name you must unsubscribe

What is a chat?
Real-time typed conversation that takes place on a computer Chat room is location on server that permits users to discuss topics of interest
Netiquette
What is netiquette?
Code of acceptable behaviors users should follow while on the Internet
Golden Rule: Treat others as you would like them to treat you.
Chapter No. 6
Programming Languages
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

When a man communicates with another person, he talks to him in a language which the other person can understand. Similarly a man communicate with the computer in language which the computer can understand. The language which consists of a set of commands, understandable by the computer directly or after translating, is known as computer programming language.
LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES
In early days of computer only those languages were used for programming which could be directly executed on computer. Languages which computer can understand directly and are machine dependent are called as low level languages. There are two types of low level languages such as: Machine language and Assembly language.
MACHINE LANGUAGE

Machine language is the most difficult language of all the languages. It is also called as first generation language. In machine language all the instructions are given to the computer in binary digits.
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
Assembly language is another type of low level languages. It is easier than the machine language and is known as second generation language. In assembly language instructions are given to the computer in form of mnemonic code such as add for addition, mul for multiplication and sub for subtraction instead of binary digits. Low level languages are used for mainly for the development of system software.
HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES

Development of application using low level languages require deep understanding of the hardware. In order to facilitate the programmers to write the programs without knowing the internal details of the computer components, many languages were developed. These languages use common English words and are translated into low level languages before processing by the computer. These languages, which computer can not understand directly and are not machine dependent are called as high Level Languages. These languages are also known as third generation languages.
Examples of High Level Languages

Some of the common high level languages are: BASIC (Beginners All Purpose symbolic Instruction Code) COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language ) FORTRAN (Formula Translation) PASCAL (Name of a scientist) C Language These languages are widely used for application development but most of them are outdated due to popularity of 4GLs.
User friendly Languages
Although high level languages are simpler to codify than the low level languages, they still require a lot of time to learn programming syntax (language rules). Hence these languages are away from the reach of many computer users, who don't want expertise (skill) in programming.
Therefore new category of languages have been developed which are user friendly, very easy to codify and simplest to learn. These languages are called as user-friendly languages and also known as fourth generation languages. Examples are dBase, FoxBASE, FoxPro, MS access, Oracle, Sybase and Ingres.
Object Oriented Languages

The languages which are based on object oriented programming approach are called as object oriented languages. They may be classified into Fifth Generation Languages object oriented languages are specially useful for development of GUI applications. These languages also offer unique feature of reusable code.
Some of the popular OO languages are Smalltalk, C++, Visual J++, Simula and Eiffel etc. There are certain languages which support most of the features of object oriented programming except inheritance. These languages are called as Object Based Languages. For example Ada is an object based Language.
Chapter No. 7
Hardware/Parts of computer
This chapter covers the following main topics
Important components of a computer system

Hardware Software Data User Processor Memory Input/Output Storage
Hardware of computer

The Parts of Computer System A complete computer system consists of four parts: Hardware Software Data User
Hardware
The mechanical devices that make up the computer. Any part you can touch. A set of instructions that make the computer perform tasks. Software tell the computer what to do.
Software
Data
Individual facts or pieces of information that by themselves may not make much sense to a person. A computer primary job is to process these data in various ways, converting them into useful information. The people who operate the computers are called as users. Some computer systems are complete without a person's involvement; however, no computer is totally autonomous. Even if a computer can do its job without a person setting in front of it, people still design, build, programs, and repair computer systems.
Users

Essential Hardware of computers
Hardware fall into one of the four categories:
Processor Memory Input and Output Storage
Processing Devices
The procedure that transforms raw data into useful information is called processing. To perform transformation, the computer use two components: the processor and memory. The processor is like the brain of the computer. It organize and carry out instructions that come either from the user of software. In a PC the processor usually consists of one or more specialized chips, called microprocessors, which are pieces of silicon.
The microprocessor is plugged into the computer motherboard. The motherboard is a rigid rectangular card containing the circuit that connect the processor to the other hardware. In most PCs, many internal devices, such as video cards, sound cards, disk controllers, and other devices, are housed on their own smaller circuit boards, which attached to the motherboard. In many new computers, these devices are built directly into the motherboard. People always refer to computer system by the type of CPU.
Memory Devices
Store data and program instructions, either temporarily or permanently. Critical processing component in any computer. Most important kind of memory for PCs is called RAM and ROM. Store data and instructions while CPU works with them. When a program is lunched, it is loaded into and run from memory.
Random Access Memory

As the program need data, it is loaded into memory for fast access. As new data is entered into the computer, it is also stored in memory, but only temporarily. Data can be written to and read from RAM, therefore it is also called read/write memory. Like many computer components, RAM is made up of a set of chips mounted on a small circuit board.
RAM is volatile. RAM has impact on the computer speed and power. The most common measurement unit for RAM is byte. Byte is the amount of memory that can store one character. For a large amount of memory the terms kilo, mega, giga, and tera byte is used.
Read Only Memory (ROM)

Permanently stores its data. It is non-volatile memory. Whenever the computer is turned on, it checks ROM for directions that help it start up, and for information about its hardware devices.
Input and Output Devices

Input devices accept data and instructions from the user or from another computer system. Output devices return processed data to the user or to another computer system. The most common input device is the keyboard. Mouse Trackball Scanner Digital camera Microphone
The most common output devices are:

Monitor Printer Some types of hardware can act as both input and output devices. A touch screen is an example of such device. Communication devices are the most common type of devices which can perform both input and output. These devices connect on computer to another computer. NIC and modem are example of such devices.
Storage Devices
To be really a useful device, a computer need to store data and programs. There are 4 major differences between memory and storage devices: 1- storage devices has more room than memory. 2- Contents are retain 3- Storage devices operate much slower than memory chips. 4- Storage devices are cheaper than memory. There are two main types of computer storage: Magnetic Optical
Magnetic Storage
Most common storage devices. Magnetic disk is a round, flat object that spins around its center. Has a read/write head. The device which holds the disk is called drive. Some disks are built into the drive and are not meant to be removed and other kind are removable. The hard disk serve as the computer primary filing cabinet.
Optical Storage
Use lasers to read data or write data. CD-ROM is the most common type of optical storage devices. CD-ROM can store 650 MB or 74 minute data. A newer CD-ROM can store up to 700 MB or 80 minute. You cant change the stored information. CD-R can record new data but the stored data cant be removed. CD-RW can be write multiple times.
DVD use sophisticated compression technology and can store minimum of 4.7 GB and maximum of 17 GB. DVD require a special player. Many DVD player can play audio, data. DVD drives are now standard equipment on PCs.

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Chapter No.

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Classification Of Computers Based On

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According to Size and storage

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According to technology used

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Zero Generation Of Computers

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First Generation - 1940-1956

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First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

The summary is:

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Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

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Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

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Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

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Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: (A.I )

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