Psychology 100

Chapter 10: Human Development:

How and Why We Change

Outline

Special Considerations in Human Development Physical and Motor Development

Cognitive Development Social and Moral Development

Developmental Psychology

The study of how behavior changes over the life span

Special Considerations
1 Post hoc fallacy Bidirectional influences Cohort effects

2 3
4

The influence of early experience

Post hoc Fallacy

Logical error where you assume that A causes B, just because B came after A

Bidirectional Influences

Human development is almost always a two-way street

Childrens development influences their experiences, but their experiences also influence their development

Cohort Effects

Sets of people who lived during one period can differ in some systematic way from sets of people who lived during a different period
Choosing between cross-sectional and longitudinal designs

Research Designs
Cross-Sectional Study All groups 2010
GROUP 1 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. Cognitive Social Moral Physical Cognitive Social Moral Physical Cognitive Social Moral Physical

GROUP 2

GROUP 3

Research Designs
LONGITUDINAL STUDY

1990 2010 2000 1. Cognitive 2. Social 3. Moral 4. Physical

Influence of Early Experience

Early input from the world exerts a significant impact on developmentbut so does all other input throughout life
Myths:
Infant

Determinism: Extremely early experiences are almost always more influential that later experiences Childhood Fragility

Clarifying the Nature-Nurture Debate

Genes and environment can intersect in complex ways:
Gene-environment

interactions Nature via nurture Gene expression

Clarifying the Nature-Nurture Debate

Physical and Motor Development

Conception & Prenatal Development

Most dramatic changes occur during early prenatal development A zygote is formed when sperm cell fertilizes an egg After this, three stages of development occur

Three Stages of Prenatal Development

Germinal stage: The zygote begins to divide and double, forming a blastocyst. Cells continue to divide then begin to differentiate, taking on different roles as the organs of the body begin to develop.

Three Stages of Prenatal Development

Embryonic stage: Occurs from the second to the eighth week of development, during which limbs, facial features, and major organs begin to take shape.

Three Stages of Prenatal Development

The fetal stage: By the ninth week, the major organs are established, and the heart begins to beat. The fetuss job for the rest of the pregnancy is physical maturation.

Brain Development

Between day 18 and the 6th month, neurons grow at an incredible rate
Up to 250,000 neurons per minute at times

Obstacles to Normal Fetal Development

Exposure to hazardous environmental influences: Teratogens

Premature birth

Biological influences resulting from genetic disorders or errors in cell duplication during cell division

Survival Instincts: Infant Reflexes

Newborns

are born with a large set of automatic motor behaviorsreflexes that help them to survive, including:
Grasping Sucking Rooting

Motor Development

Motor behaviors are bodily motions that occur as result of self-initiated force that moves the bones and muscles Wide range in the rate and manner in which children achieve motor milestones: Influenced by physical maturity, as well as cultural and parenting practices
Almost always achieved in the same developmental sequence

The Progression of Motor Development

Sitting without support 6 months

Crawling 9 months
Standing 11 months

Cruising 12 months

Walking without assistance 13 months

Running 1824 months

Physical Development in Childhood

The relative size of body parts changes dramatically during first 20 years
Different parts grow at different rates

Adolescence

Transitional period between childhood and adulthood commonly associated with the teenage years
Bodies reach full maturity, in part due to hormonal release
Estrogens

and androgens

Physical Development in Adults

Most of us reach our physical peaks in early 20s

Strength,

coordination, speed of cognitive processing, and physical flexibility

Declines begin shortly after, including muscle, sensory processes, and fertility

Changes in Agility and Physical Coordination with Age

Complex tasks show greater effects of age than simpler ones. Elderly adults become less flexible in learning new motor skills. Some individuals display greater age-related declines than others.

Cognitive Development

Theories of Cognitive Development

Numerous explanations of how we acquire the ability to learn, think, communicate, and remember over time
Differ in three ways
Stagelike

vs gradual changes in understanding Domain-general vs domain-specific Principal source of learning

Jean Piaget

Swiss psychologist who presented first complete account of cognitive development Stage theorist who believed skills were domain-general Thought end point of cognitive development is ability to reason logically about hypotheticals

Piagets Theory

Children use assimilation to acquire new knowledge within a stage When one can no longer assimilate new information, accommodation forces change between stages

BIRDS fly wings

Assimilate

Assimilate

Assimilate

BIRDS fly wings beak

FLYING ANIMALS fly wings

Piagets Stages of Development

Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete operational Formal operations

Piagets Stages of Development

Stage 1

Sensorimotor

Birth2

years

Characterized

by a focus on the here and now without the ability to represent experiences mentally
Lack

object permanence and deferred imitation

Piagets Stages of Development

Stage 2

Preoperational

27

years

Characterized

by the ability to construct mental representations of experience, but not yet perform operations on them Symbolic behavior Egocentrism

Piagets Stages of Development

Stage 3

Concrete

711

years

Characterized

by the ability to perform mental operations on physical events only

Conservation

Piagets Stages of Development

Stage 4

Formal

11

years to adulthood Characterized by the ability to perform hypothetical reasoning beyond the here and now

Task: What makes a pendulum swing faster or slower? swing.

Pendulum Children

have the opportunity to construct a pendulum using longer and shorter strings with heavier and lighter weights.
Formal

Operations: Can systematically manipulate various combinations of weights and lengths to observe how they influenced the speed of the speed of the swing.

Piagets Stages of Development: Summary

Criticisms of Piagets Theory

Much

of development is more continuous than stage-like underestimated childrens underlying competence have been culturally biased; elicited more sophisticated responses from children in Westernized societies with formal education

Probably

May

Pros and Cons of Piaget

Still, highly influential and helped change how we think about cognitive development
Children

as different in kind rather than degree from adults Learning as active process More parsimonious account of cognitive development

Lev Vygotsky

Theory focused on social and cultural influences on cognitive development Parents structure environments for learning and then gradually remove it (scaffolding)
Zone of proximal development and developmental readiness for learning

Vygotsky: Social and Cultural Influences on Learning

Different
Social

children develop skills in different domains at different rates.

structuring on the part of the parent facilitates childrens learning and development. Scaffolding: Provide initial assistance but gradually remove structure Zone of proximal development: Phase where children benefit most from instruction

Contemporary Theories

General cognitive accounts: General development of cognitive processes and experience-based learning.

Differ from Piaget: learning as more gradual

Sociocultural accounts: Some emphasize experience-based learning, others innate knowledge.

Share focus on the childs interaction with the social world as primary source of development.

Modular accounts: Emphasizes the idea of domain-specific learning.

E.g. language versus physical environment no overlapping skills

Cognitive Landmarks of Early Development

Physical

reasoning Physical reasoning in infants involves: Nave physics: Basic understanding of how physical objects behave (e.g., when object will fall) Refinement of knowledge based on experience

Cognitive Landmarks of Early Development

Concepts

and Categories Conceptual development requires children to acquire knowledge of: How things look How they are used In what contexts they appear

Cognitive Landmarks of Early Development

and the concept of other Self-recognition becomes increasingly sophisticated as children move from understanding they are physically distinct entities to understanding that others have minds distinct from their own. Theory of mind: Ability to reason about what others know/believe
Self-concept

Cognitive Landmarks of Early Development

Numbers

and mathematics Numerical development requires a complex understanding of counting rules and the nature of precise quantities. This ability develops slowly and is easily disrupted. The ability to count doesnt appear in all cultures.

Cognitive Changes in Adolescence

Frontal

lobes dont fully mature until late adolescence or early adulthood

Personal

fable and feeling unique and special risk-taking

Changing

attitudes toward knowledge

Cognitive Function in Adulthood

Downside
The ability to recall information decreases after age 30. Overall speed of processing declines.

Upside
Cued recall and recognition remain intact. There is relatively little decline in remembering material thats pertinent to peoples everyday lives. Older adults perform better on most vocabulary and knowledge tests than do younger adults.

Overall brain matter decreases.

Social and Moral Development

Early Social Development

Infants develop interest in other people very quickly after birth Stranger anxiety starts at 8-9 months, peaks at 1215 months Differences in childrens social and emotional styles reflect differences in temperament Appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin

Babies Emotional Styles

Distribution of Inhibition

Thomas

and Chess: Easy (40%) Difficult (10%) Slow-to-warm-up (15%)

Kagan: Behavioral

inhibition: Frightened by the novel & unexpected

Attachment

Emotional connection we share with those to whom we feel closest

Imprinting and possible sensitive periods for healthy interpersonal relationships Romanian orphans in 1970s and 80s

Contact Comfort

Behaviorists assumed children bonded with those that provided them nourishment
Harlows work with rhesus monkeys showed otherwise

Attachment Styles

Refers to how infants react when separated from primary caregiver Strange Situation task

Attachment Styles

Secure: Upset, but greets mothers return with joy.

Insecure-avoidant attachment: Indifferent and shows little reaction on mothers return. Insecure-anxious attachment: Panics and then shows a mixed emotional reaction on mothers return, simultaneously reaching for her yet squirming to get away after she picks him/her up. Disorganized attachment: Inconsistent and confused set of responses. May appear dazed when reunited with mother.

Attachment Styles

Four categories of behavior Secure attachment (60%) Insecure-avoidant attachment (15%-20%) Insecure-anxious attachment (15%-20%) Disorganized attachment (5%-10%)

Attachment Styles

Show large cultural differences

Subject to the mono-operations bias: Single measure to make conclusions Lack of reliability on the Strange Situation Changing styles over brief times Different styles for mom vs dad (40% of infants)

Establishing Bonds
Type

of attachment varies depending on:

Parental

style Infant temperament

Parenting Styles

Permissive tend to be lenient, little discipline, very affectionate Authoritarian Very strict, punishing, little affection Authoritative Supportive but set clear and firm limits Uninvolved neglectful and ignoring

Parenting Styles

May not matter as much as once thought, as long as an average expectable environment is provided
Matter most if they are toxic or child is genetically predisposed towards impulsivity or violent behavior

Other Parenting Issues

Relative influence of peers vs parents on social development Fathers differ from mothers in several ways
Less

attentive and affectionate towards babies Spend less time with babies More time in physical play Preferred as playmates by children

Enviro and Genetic Influences on Social Behavior and Social Style in Children
Self-control:

The

ability to inhibit our impulses Crucial ingredient of social development Good predictor of later social adjustment

Gender concepts are crucial to childrens understanding of themselves as social beings.

Sex
Individuals biological status as male or female

Gender

Psychological characteristicsbehaviors, thoughts, and emotionsthat tend to be associated with being male or female A persons sense of being male or female

Gender identity
Sublimation

Gender role

Behaviors that tend to accompany being male or female

Development of Gender Identity

Biological influence on gender differences Which toys are played with Sex segregation during play

Social influences also play a role in gender development Encouragement of types of behavior Expectations of behavior
Gender-role socialization tends to be stricter for boys than girls

Identity Development

One main challenges during adolescence is development of an identity who we are, our goals and priorities
Erikson developed a comprehensive model to explain identity development

Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg

Proposed

a 3-level theory of moral development: Preconventional level Conventional level Postconventional level

Levels of Moral Reasoning

Preconventional Punishment Conventional Societal
Whats

Postconventional Internal

and

values

reward
Whats

right: What were rewarded for Whats wrong: What were punished for

right: What society approves of Whats wrong: What society disapproves of

moral principles that transcend society

Whats

right: What accords with fundamental human rights and values Whats wrong: What contradicts these rights and values

woman in Europe was dying from a rare disease. Her only hope was a drug that a local druggist had discovered. The druggist was charging ten times more than it cost him to make it. Heinz, the husband of the dying woman, had desperately tried to borrow money to buy the drug, but he could borrow only half of the amount he needed. He went to the druggist, told him that his wife was dying, and asked to let him pay the druggist later or to sell the drug at a lower cost. The druggist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and he was going to make money from it. Later, Heinz broke into the druggist's store to steal the drug for his wife (Kohlberg, 1969, p. 379).

Criticisms of Kohlbergs Work

Cultural Sex

bias

bias: Justice Vs. Caring

Low

correlation with moral behavior

with verbal intelligence direction: Moral reasoning vs emotional reaction

Confound Causal

Life Transitions in Adulthood

Careers

Love and commitment

Parenthood

Midlife transitions

Social Transitions in Later Years

Different

ways of conceptualizing old age:

Biological

functioning Mental attitudes, agility and capacity to deal with stress Ability to function in societal roles Age appropriate social behaviors