Transistor

BJT Transistors:
NPN Transistor
Sandwiching a P-type layer between two ntype layers.

PNP Transistor

Sandwiching a N-type layer between two ptype layers.

How a NPN Transistor works?

The base-emitter diode (forward) acts as a switch. when v1>0.7 it lets the electrons flow toward collector. so we can control our output current (Ic) with the input current (Ib) by using transistors.

backward

E
Forward

Transistors have three terminals:

Collector Base Emitter Active:
Always on

Ic=BIb

Transistors work in 3 regions

Saturation Off
:Ic=0

:Ic=Isaturation

On as a switch

Off as a switch

Transistor as a Switch
Transistors can be used as switches.1

Transistor

Switch

Transistors can either conduct or not conduct current.2 ie, transistors can either be on or off.2

Transistor Switching Example15

X
12V

Variable Voltage Supply

When VBE is less than 0.7V the transistor is off and the lamp does not light.
When VBE is greater than 0.7V the transistor is on and the lamp lights.

Transistor Circuit : Light-Controlled Circuit

This transistor circuit contains a Light-Dependent Resistor. Because of the LDR, this circuit is dependent on light. The purpose of this circuit is to turn on the LED when the light reaches a certain intensity. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) LED = Off. Cover LDR. RLDR . VLDR . Transistor switches on. LED = On.

Input = Voltage Divider Process = Transistor Output = LED

Transistor as an amplifier:
Transistors are often used as amplifiers to increase input signal in radios, televisions and some other applications .The circuit may be designed to increase the current or voltage level. The power gain is the product of current gain and voltage gain (P=V*I).

Amplifier example:
As you see, the transistor is biased to be always on. The input signal is amplified by this circuit. The frequency of output is the same as its input, but the polarity of the signal is inverted. The measure of amplification is the gain of transistor.
Example: Input Amplitude =0.2v Output amplitude=10v Gain=10/0.2=50

Field Effect Transistors

JFET MOSFET CMOS

How a JFET transistor works?

When the gate is negative ,it repels the electron in the Nchannel. So there is no way for electrons to flow from source to drain.

When the negative voltage is removed from Gate ,the electrons can flow freely from source to drain .so the transistor is on.

How a

MOSFET

Transistor works?

In MosFET, the Gate is insulated from p-channel or n-channel. This prevents gate current from flowing, reducing power usage.

When the Gate is positive voltage ,it allows electrons to flow from drain to source .In this case transistor is on.

How a CMOS transistor works?

N-channel & P-channel MOSFETs can be combined in pairs with a common gate .

When Gate (input) is high ,electrons can flow in N-channel easily . So output becomes low. (opposite of input)

When Gate (input) is low ,holes can flow in P-channel easily. So output becomes high. (opposite of input)

Opamp

Schematic diagram of lm741

Ideal Opamp

Operational Amplifier (OP AMP)

Basic and most common circuit building device. Ideally,
A

1. No current can enter terminals V+ or V-. Called infinite input impedance.

2. Vout=A(V+ - V-) with A

Vo = (A V + -A V ) = A (V + - V )
-

3. In a circuit V+ is forced equal to V-. This is the virtual ground property 4. An opamp needs two voltages to power it Vcc and -Vee. These are called the rails.

INPUT IMPEDANCE
Input Circuit Output WHY?
For an instrument the ZIN should be very high (ideally infinity) so it does not divert any current from the input to itself even if the input has very high resistance. e.g. an opamp taking input from a microelectrode.

Impedance between input terminals = input impedance

OUTPUT IMPEDANCE
Impedance between output terminals = output impedance
WHY? Input Circuit Output For an instrument the ZOUT should be very low (ideally zero) so it can supply output even to very low resistive loads and not expend most of it on itself. e.g. a power opamp driving a motor

OPAMP: COMPARATOR
Vout=A(Vin Vref) If Vin>Vref, Vout = + but practically hits +ve power supply = Vcc
A (gain) very high

If Vin<Vref, Vout = - but practically hits ve power supply = -Vee

Application: detection of QRS complex in ECG

Vcc -Vee

VREF VIN

OPAMP: ANALYSIS
The key to op amp analysis is simple

1. No current can enter op amp input terminals.

=> Because of infinite input impedance 2. The +ve and ve (non-inverting and inverting) inputs are forced to be at the same potential. => Because of infinite open loop gain 3. These property is called virtual ground 4. Use the ideal op amp property in all your analyses

OPAMP: VOLTAGE FOLLOWER

V+ = VIN.
By virtual ground, V- = V+ Thus Vout = V- = V+ = VIN !!!! So whats the point ? The point is, due to the infinite input impedance of an op amp, no current at all can be drawn from the circuit before VIN. Thus this part is effectively isolated. Very useful for interfacing to high

impedance sensors such as microelectrode, microphone

OPAMP: INVERTING AMPLIFIER

1. V- = V+ 2. As V+ = 0, V- = 0 3. As no current can enter V- and from Kirchoffs Ist law, I1=I2.

4. I1 = (VIN - V-)/R1 = VIN/R1

5. I2 = (0 - VOUT)/R2 = -VOUT/R2 => VOUT = -I2R2 6. From 3 and 6, VOUT = -I2R2 = -I1R2 = -VINR2/R1 7. Therefore VOUT = (-R2/R1)VIN

OPAMP: NON INVERTING AMPLIFIER

1. V- = V+ 2. As V+ = VIN, V- = VIN 3. As no current can enter V- and from Kirchoffs Ist law, I1=I2.

4. I1 = VIN/R1

5. I2 = (VOUT - VIN)/R2 => VOUT = VIN + I2R2 6. VOUT = I1R1 + I2R2 = (R1+R2)I1 = (R1+R2)VIN/R1 7. Therefore VOUT = (1 + R2/R1)VIN

SUMMING AMPLIFIER
Recall inverting amplifier and If = I1 + I2 + + In

If

VOUT = -Rf (V1/R1 + V2/R2 + + Vn/Rn)

Summing amplifier is a good example of analog circuits serving as analog computing amplifiers (analog computers)! Note: analog circuits can add, subtract, multiply/divide (using logarithmic components, differentiate and integrate in real time and continuously.

DRIVING OPAMPS
For certain applications (e.g. driving a motor or a speaker), the amplifier needs to supply high current. Opamps cant handle this so we modify them thus

Irrespective of the opamp circuit, the small current it sources can switch ON the BJT giving orders of magnitude higher current in the load.