Traditional Manufacturing Processes

Casting
Forming
Sheet metal processing
Cutting
Joining
Powder- and Ceramics Processing
Plastics processing
Surface treatment
Cutting
Sawing
Shaping (or planing),
Broaching, drilling,
Grinding,
Turning
Milling
Processes that involve removal of material from solid workpiece
Important concept: PROCESS PLANNING
Fixturing and Location
Operations sequencing
Setup planning
Operations planning
Sawing
A process to cut components, stock, etc.
Process character: Precision: [very low,, very high]; MRR: low
Sawing
Shaping
chip
slide
tool-post
pivot
chip
tool-post rotates as
slide returns;
workpiece shifted;
next stroke
(a) (b)
(c)
chip chip
slide
tool-post
pivot
slide
tool-post
pivot
chip
tool-post rotates as
slide returns;
workpiece shifted;
next stroke
chip
tool-post rotates as
slide returns;
workpiece shifted;
next stroke
(a) (b)
(c)
A process to plane the surface of a workpiece (or to reduce part thickness

Process character: High MRR, medium Surface finish, dimension control
Broaching
Precise process for mass-production of complex geometry parts
(complicated hole-shapes)

Process character: High MRR, Very good surface, dimension control, Expensive
Broaching machine
Broaching tools
Complex hole shapes cut by broaching
Broaching machine
Broaching tools
Complex hole shapes cut by broaching
Drilling, Reaming, Boring
Processes to make holes
Process character: High MRR, Cheap, Medium-high surface, dimension control
Drilling basics
- softer materials small point angle; hard, brittle material: larger point angle

- Length/Diameter ratio is large gun-drilling (L/D ratio ~ 300)

- Very small diameter holes (e.g. < 0.5 mm): cant drill (why?)

- u drilled hole > u drill: vibrations, misalignments,

- Tight dimension control: drill ream

- Spade drills: large, deep holes

- Coutersink/counterbore drills: multiple diameter hole screws/bolts heads
Tapping
Processes to make threads in holes
Process character: low MRR, Cheap, good surface, dimension control
Manual tap and die set
Automated tapping
Grinding, Abrasive Machining
Processes to finish and smooth surfaces
Process character: very low MRR, very high surface, dimension control
1. To improve the surface finish of a manufactured part
(a) Injection molding die: milling manual grinding/electro-grinding.
(b) Cylinders of engine: turning grinding honing lapping

2. To improve the dimensional tolerance of a manufactured part
(a) ball-bearings: forging grinding [control: < 15 m]
(b) Knives: forged steel hardened grinding

3. To cut hard brittle materials
(a) Semiconductor IC chips: slicing and dicing

4. To remove unwanted materials of a cutting process
(a) Deburring parts made by drilling, milling
Abrasive tools and Machines
abrasive wheels, paper, tools diamond grinding wheel for slicing silicon wafers diamond dicing wheel for silicon
abrasive wheels, paper, tools diamond grinding wheel for slicing silicon wafers diamond dicing wheel for silicon
Grinding machine
Grinding wheels
Centerless grinding
Grinding machine
Grinding wheels
Centerless grinding
Turning
Processes to cut cylindrical stock into revolved shapes
Process character: high MRR, high surface, dimension control
feed, f
depth of cut, d
feed, f
depth of cut, d
spindle chuck tool-post
carriage
tail-stock
carriage wheel cross-slide wheel
tail-stock wheel
lead-screw
spindle chuck tool-post
carriage
tail-stock
carriage wheel cross-slide wheel
tail-stock wheel
lead-screw
Turning operations
turning taper profile cut groove cut cut-off thread cut
facing
face groove boring, internal groove
drilling
knurling
turning taper profile cut groove cut cut-off thread cut
facing
face groove boring, internal groove
drilling
knurling
feed, f
depth of cut, d
feed, f
depth of cut, d
Fixturing parts for turning
part in a 3-jaw chuck
4-jaw chuck holding a non-rotational part
A collet type work-holder; collets are common in
automatic feeding lathes the workpiece is a long
bar; each short part is machined and then cut-off;
the collet is released, enough bar is pushed out to
make the next part, and the collet is pulled back to
grip the bar; the next part is machined, and so on.
A long part held between live center (at spindle)
and dead center (at tailstock)
steps
part in a 3-jaw chuck
4-jaw chuck holding a non-rotational part
A collet type work-holder; collets are common in
automatic feeding lathes the workpiece is a long
bar; each short part is machined and then cut-off;
the collet is released, enough bar is pushed out to
make the next part, and the collet is pulled back to
grip the bar; the next part is machined, and so on.
A long part held between live center (at spindle)
and dead center (at tailstock)
steps
Milling
Versatile process to cut arbitrary 3D shapes
Process character: high MRR, high surface, dimension control
[source: www.hitachi-tool.com.jp]
[source: www.phorn.co.uk]
[source: www.hitachi-tool.com.jp] [source: www.hitachi-tool.com.jp]
[source: www.phorn.co.uk] [source: www.phorn.co.uk]
[source: Kalpakjian & Schmid ] ] ]
Common vertical milling cutters
Flat
Ballnose
Bullnose
Up and Down milling
(a) Conventional, or Up milling
- chip thickness goes UP;
- cutting dynamics: smoother
(b) Climb, or Down milling
- chip thickness goes DOWN;
- cutting dynamics: bad for forged/cast
parts with brittle, hard scales on surface
(a) Conventional, or Up milling
- chip thickness goes UP;
- cutting dynamics: smoother
(b) Climb, or Down milling
- chip thickness goes DOWN;
- cutting dynamics: bad for forged/cast
parts with brittle, hard scales on surface
Fixtures for Milling: Vise
Vise fixed to a milling table, holding rectangular part
V-slot vise jaws hold cylindrical parts horizontally/vertically
Vise fixed to a milling table, holding rectangular part
V-slot vise jaws hold cylindrical parts horizontally/vertically
Vise on sine-bar to hold part at an angle
relative to the spindle
Universal angle vise can index parts along any direction
Vise on sine-bar to hold part at an angle
relative to the spindle
Universal angle vise can index parts along any direction
Strap clamp
Clamp support
(clamp and support have teeth)
Parallel bars raise the part
above table surface allow
making through holes
Bolt (bolt-head is inserted into T-slot in table)
Workpiece
Strap clamp
Clamp support
(clamp and support have teeth)
Parallel bars raise the part
above table surface allow
making through holes
Bolt (bolt-head is inserted into T-slot in table)
Workpiece
Fixtures for Milling: Clamps
Process Analysis
Fundamental understanding of the process improve, control, optimize
Method: Observation modeling verification
Every process must be analyzed; [we only look at orthogonal 1-pt cutting]
v
v
e
v
f
v
v
e
v
f
Geometry of the cutting tool
end cutting edge angle
side rake angle
side clearance angle front clearance angle
back rake angle
lead cutting edge angle
end cutting edge angle
side rake angle
side clearance angle front clearance angle
back rake angle
lead cutting edge angle
Modeling: Mechanism of cutting
Chip
Tool
Chip forms by
shear in this region d
e
p
t
h

o
f

c
u
t
Friction between
tool, chip in this
region
Chip
Tool
Chip forms by
shear in this region d
e
p
t
h

o
f

c
u
t
Friction between
tool, chip in this
region
Old model: crack propagation
Current model: shear
Tool wear: observations and models
High stresses, High friction, High temp (1000C) tool damage

Adhesion wear:
fragments of the workpiece get welded to the tool surface at high temperatures;
eventually, they break off, tearing small parts of the tool with them.

Abrasion:
hard particles, microscopic variations on the bottom surface of the chips
rub against the tool surface

Diffusion wear:
at high temperatures, atoms from tool diffuse across to the chip;
the rate of diffusion increases exponentially with temperature;
this reduces the fracture strength of the crystals.
Tool wear, Tool failure, Tool life criteria
1. Catastrophic failure (e.g. tool is broken completely)
2. VB = 0.3 mm (uniform wear in Zone B), or VBmax = 0.6 mm (non-uniform flank wear)
3. KT = 0.06 + 0.3f, (where f = feed in mm/revolution).
workpiece
tool
crater wear
flank wear
chip
workpiece
tool
crater wear
flank wear
chip
Built-up edge (BUE)
Deposition, work hardening of a thin layer of the workpiece material
on the surface of the tool.
negative rake angle
(for cutting hard, brittle materials)
negative rake angle
(for cutting hard, brittle materials)
negative rake angle
(for cutting hard, brittle materials)
BUE poor surface finish

Likelihood of BUE decreases with
(i) decrease in depth of cut,
(ii) increase in rake angle,
(iii) use of proper cutting fluid during machining.
Process modeling: empirical results
Experimental chart showing relation of tool wear with f and V
[source: Boothroyd]
Modeling: surface finish
Relation of feed and surface finish
Analysis: Machining Economics
How can we optimize the machining of a part ?
Identify the objective, formulate a model, solve for optimality
Typical objectives: maximum production rate, and/or minimum cost

Are these objectives compatible (satisfied simultaneously) ?
Formulating model: observations hypothesis theory model
Analysis: Machining Economics..
Formulating model: observations hypothesis theory model
Observation:
A given machine, tool, workpiece combination has finite max MRR
Hypothesis:
Total volume to cut is minimum Maximum production rate
Model objective:
Find minimum volume stock for a given part

-- Near-net shape stocks (use casting, forging, )
-- Minimum enclosing volumes of 3D shapes
Models:
- minimum enclosing cylinder for a rotational part
- minimum enclosing rectangular box for a milled part

Solving:
-- requires some knowledge of computational geometry
Analysis: Machining Economics..
Model objective:
Find optimum operations plan and tools for a given part
Model: Process Planning
- Machining volume, tool selection, operations sequencing

Solving:
- in general, difficult to optimize
Example:


or
or
??
Analysis: process parameters optimization
Model objective:
Find optimum feed, cutting speed to [maximize MRR]/[minimize cost]/
Feed:
Higher feed higher MRR
Finish cutting:

surface finish feed
Given surface finish, we can find maximum allowed feed rate
Process parameters optimization: feed
Rough cutting:
MRR cutting speed, V
MRR feed, f
cannot increase V and f arbitrarily
V MRR; surface finish f(V); energy per unit volume MRR f(V)
Tool temperature V, f; Friction wear V; Friction wear f
For a given increase in MRR: V lower tool life than f
Optimum feed: maximum allowed for tool [given machine power, tool strength]
Process parameters optimization: Speed
provided upper limits, but not optimum
Need a relation between tool life and cutting speed (other parameters being constant)
Model objective:
Given optimum feed, what is the optimum cutting speed
Taylors model (empirically based): V t
n
= constant
Process parameters optimization: Speed
One batch of large number, N
b
, of identical parts
Replace tool by a new one whenever it is worn
Total non-productive time = N
b
t
l
t
l
= time to (load the stock + position the tool + unload the part)
N
b
be the total number of parts in the batch.
Total machining time = N
b
t
m
t
m
= time to machine the part
Total tool change time = N
t
t
c
t
c
= time to replace the worn tool with a new one
N
t
= total number tools used to machine the entire batch.
Cost of each tool = C
t
,
Cost per unit time for machine and operator = M.
Average cost per item:
t
b
t
c
b
t
m l pr
C
N
N
t
N
N
M Mt Mt C + + + =
Process parameters optimization: Speed
Average cost per item:
t
b
t
c
b
t
m l pr
C
N
N
t
N
N
M Mt Mt C + + + =
Let: total length of the tool path = L
V
L
t
m
=
1
= MLV
V
L
M
t = tool life N
t
= (N
b
t
m
)/t N
t
/ N
b
= t
m
/ t
Taylors model Vt
n
= C t = C
1/n
/ V
1/n
= C/V
1/n

C
V L
C
V
V
L
t
t
N
N
n n n
m
b
t
/ ) 1 ( / 1
= = =
Process parameters optimization: Speed
Average cost per item:
t
b
t
c
b
t
m l pr
C
N
N
t
N
N
M Mt Mt C + + + =
1
= MLV
V
L
M
C
V L
N
N
n n
b
t
/ ) 1 (
=
n n
t c l pr
V C t M
C
L
MLV Mt C
/ ) 1 ( 1
) (

+ + + =
Process parameters optimization: Speed
n n
t c l pr
V C t M
C
L
MLV Mt C
/ ) 1 ( 1
) (

+ + + =
n n
t c
pr
V
n
n
C t M
C
L
MLV
dV
dC
/ ) 2 1 ( 2
) 1 (
) ( 0


+ + = =
Optimum speed (to minimize costs)
n
t c
n
n
C t M
MC
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
) 1 ( ) (
*
Optimum speed (to minimize time)
c
b
t
m l pr
t
N
N
t t t + + =
Average time to produce part:
Process parameters optimization: Speed
Optimum speed (to minimize costs)
n
t c
n
n
C t M
MC
V
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
) 1 ( ) (
*
Optimum speed (to minimize time)
c
b
t
m l pr
t
N
N
t t t + + =
Average time to produce part:
load/unload time
machining time
tool change time
V
L
t
m
=
c
b
t
m l pr
t
N
N
t t t + + =
C
V L
N
N
n n
b
t
/ ) 1 (
=
Substitute, differentiate, solve for V*
Process Planning
The process plan specifies:

operations
tools, path plan and operation conditions
setups
sequences
possible machine routings
fixtures
4 x counterbored holes
groove 5mmX5mm
4 x counterbored holes
groove 5mmX5mm
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5 S6
S7
S8
S9
S10
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5 S6
S7
S8
S9
S10
Process Planning
4 x counterbored holes
groove 5mmX5mm
4 x counterbored holes
groove 5mmX5mm
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5 S6
S7
S8
S9
S10
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5 S6
S7
S8
S9
S10
[7.5mm Drill] drill 4 holes |7.5
[HSS 1-pt tool] Face S6
[5mm groove cutter] Groove S9
Setup 3: Clamp part on Drill press,
Locate using: S3, S7
[HSS 1-pt tool] turn S5 to |60,
face S10, fillet edge on S4
[Center drill] mark, center-drill 4 holes
[HSS 1-pt tool] face S1
[HSS 1-pt tool] face S3
[Drill in tailstock] Center drill
[Drill in tailstock] Drill |32
Setup 2: Chuck part on S4
[10mm counterbore] Counterbore 5mm
[HSS 1-pt tool] turn S2 to |55
[HSS 1-pt tool] turn S4 to |104
Setup 1: Part in chuck
Ts Tc L d S f V Description
Fixture: 3-jaw chuck on lathe; Strap clamp + parallel bars on drill-press
Legend:
Batch size= N pieces Stock: bar stock diameter: 105 Job # :
[7.5mm Drill] drill 4 holes |7.5
[HSS 1-pt tool] Face S6
[5mm groove cutter] Groove S9
Setup 3: Clamp part on Drill press,
Locate using: S3, S7
[HSS 1-pt tool] turn S5 to |60,
face S10, fillet edge on S4
[Center drill] mark, center-drill 4 holes
[HSS 1-pt tool] face S1
[HSS 1-pt tool] face S3
[Drill in tailstock] Center drill
[Drill in tailstock] Drill |32
Setup 2: Chuck part on S4
[10mm counterbore] Counterbore 5mm
[HSS 1-pt tool] turn S2 to |55
[HSS 1-pt tool] turn S4 to |104
Setup 1: Part in chuck
Ts Tc L d S f V Description
Fixture: 3-jaw chuck on lathe; Strap clamp + parallel bars on drill-press
Legend:
Batch size= N pieces Stock: bar stock diameter: 105 Job # :
V: cutting speed m/min
f : feed mm/rev
S: spindle rpm
d: depth of cut mm
L: Tool path length, min
Tc: cutting time, min
Ts: setup time, min
Operation sequencing examples (Milling)
step hole
or
hole step
big-hole step small hole
or
small hole step big-hole
or

Traditional Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Forming
Sheet metal processing
Cutting
Joining
Powder- and Ceramics Processing
Plastics processing
Surface treatment
Joining Processes
Types of Joints:
1. Joints that allow relative motion (kinematic joints)
2. Joints that disallow any relative motion (rigid joints)
Uses of Joints:
1. To restrict some degrees of freedom of motion
2. If complex part shape is impossible/expensive to manufacture
3. To allow assembled product be disassembled for maintenance.
4. Transporting a disassembled product is sometimes easier/feasible
Joining Processes
Fusion welding: joining metals by melting solidification

Solid state welding: joining metals without melting

Brazing: joining metals with a lower mp metal

Soldering: joining metals with solder (very low mp)

Gluing: joining with glue

Mechanical joining: screws, rivets etc.
Arc welding
Oxy-acetylene welding
Flame: 3000C
arc: 30,000C
manual
robotic
Gas shielded arc welding
Argon
MIG
TIG
Al
Ti, Mg,
Thin sections
Fusion welding
Plasma arc welding
Electron beam welding
Laser beam welding
Deep, narrow welds
Aerospace, medical, automobile body panels
Faster than TIW, slower than Laser
Nd:YAG and CO
2
lasers, power ~ 100kW
Fast, high quality, deep, narrow welds
deep, narrow welds, expensive
Fusion welding..
Solid state welding
Diffusion welds between very clean, smooth pieces of metal, at 0.3~0.5T
m

Cold welding (roll bonding)
coins, bimetal strips
Solid state welding..
Ultrasonic welding
25m Al wire on IC Chip
Ultrasonic wire bonder
Medical, Packaging, IC chips, Toys

Materials: metal, plastic

- clean, fast, cheap
Resistance welding
Welding metal strips: clamp together, heat by current
Spot welds on a pan
Spot welding
Robotic Spot welding on auto body
Spot welds on a pan
Spot welding
Robotic Spot welding on auto body
Spot welding
Seam welding
resistance seam welding
resistance welded petrol tank
resistance seam welding
resistance welded petrol tank
Brazing
Torch brazing Furnace brazing
T
m
of Filler material < T
m
of the metals being joined
Common Filler materials: copper-alloys, e.g. bronze

Common applications: pipe joint seals, ship-construction
Soldering
Tin + Lead alloy, very low T
m
(~ 200C)

Main application: electronic circuits
Gluing
Adhesive type Notes Applications
Acrylic two component thermoplastic; quick
setting; impact resistant, strong impact
and peel strength
fiberglass, steel, plastics, motor
magnets, tennis racquets
Anaerobic thermoset; slow, no-air curing cures in
presence of metal ions
sealing of nut-and-bolts, close-
fitting holes and shafts, casting
micro-porosities etc.
Epoxy strongest adhesive; thermoset; high tensile
strength; low peel strength
metal parts (especially Nickel),
ceramic parts, rigid plastics
Cyanoacrylate thermoplastic; high strength; rapid aerobic
curing in presence of humidity
[common brand: Crazy glue]
plastics, rubber, ceramics, metals
Hot melt thermoplastic polymers; rigid or flexible;
applied in molten state, cure on cooling
footwear, cartons and other
packaging boxes, book-binding
Polyacrylate esters
(PSA)
Pressure sensitive adhesives all types of tapes, labels, stickers,
decals, envelops, etc.
Phenolic thermoset, oven curing, strong but brittle acoustic padding, brake lining,
clutch pads, abrasive grain bonding
Silicone thermoset, slow curing, flexible gaskets and sealants
Formaldehyde thermoset joining wood, making plywood
Urethane thermoset, strong at large thickness fiberglass body parts, concrete gap
filling, mold repairs
Water-based cheap, non-toxic, safe wood, paper, fabric, leather

Mechanical fasteners
(a) Screws (b) Bolts, nuts and washers (c) Rivets
(a) pneumatic carton stapler (b) Clips (c) A circlip in the gear drive of a kitchen mixer
Plastic wire clips
Wire conductor: crimping
Plastic snap-fasteners
Traditional Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Forming
Sheet metal processing
Cutting
Joining
Powder- and Ceramics Processing
Plastics processing
Surface treatment
Surface treatment, Coating, Painting
1. Improving the hardness
2. Improving the wear resistance
3. Controlling friction, Reduction of adhesion, improving the lubrication, etc.
4. Improving corrosion resistance
5. Improving aesthetics
Post-production processes
Only affect the surface, not the bulk of the material
Mechanical hardening
Shot peening precision auto gears [source: www.vacu-blast.co.uk]
[source: www.uwinint.co.kr]
Shot peening
Laser peening
Case hardening
Process Dopant Procedure Notes Applications
Carburizing C Low-carbon steel part in
oven at 870-950C with
excess CO
2

0.5 ~ 1.5mm case gets
to 65 HRC; poor
dimension control
Gears, cams,
shafts, bearings
CarboNitriding C and N Low-carbon steel part in
oven at 800-900C with
excess CO
2
and NH
3

0.07~0.5mm case, up
to 62 HRC, lower
distortion
Nuts, bolts,
gears
Cyaniding C and N Low-carbon steel part in
bath of cyanide salts with
30% NaCN
0.025~0.25mm case,
up to 65 HRC
nuts, bolts,
gears, screws
Nitriding N Low-carbon steel part in
oven at 500-600C with
excess NH
3

0.1~0.6mm case, up
to 1100 HV
tools, gears,
shafts
Boronizing B Part heated in oven with
Boron containing gas
Very hard, wear
resistant case,
0.025~0.075mm
Tool and die
steels
Vapor deposition
Deposition of thin film (1~10 m) of metal
Sputtering: important process in IC Chip manufacture
Thermal spraying
High velocity oxy-fuel spraying
Thermal metal powder spray
Plasma spray
Tungsten Carbide / Cobalt Chromium Coating
on roll for Paper Manufacturing Industry
[source: www.fst.nl/process.htm]
Electroplating
Deposit metal on cathode, sacrifice from anode
Anodizing
chrome-plated auto parts
copper-plating
Metal part on anode: oxide+coloring-dye deposited using electrolytic process
Painting
Type of paints:

Enamel: oil-based; smooth, glossy surface
Lacquers: resin based; dry as solvent evaporates out; e.g. wood varnish
Water-based paints: e.g. wall paints, home-interior paints
Painting methods

Dip coating: part is dipped into a container of paint, and pulled out.
Spray coating: most common industrial painting method
Electrostatic spraying: charged paint particles sprayed to part using voltage
Silk-screening: very important method in IC electronics mfg
Painting
Electrostatic Spray Painting
Spray Painting in BMW plant
Silk screening
These notes covered processes: cutting, joining and surface treatment

We studied one method of modeling a process, in order to optimize it

We introduced the importance and difficulties of process planning.
Summary
Further reading: Chapters 24, 21, 30-32: Kalpajian & Schmid