6 RT 7 y

Euler and Hamilton Cycles; Planar Graphs; Coloring.
Zeph Grunschlag
Copyright Zeph Grunschlag, 2001-2002.
Agenda
Euler paths and cycles Hamilton paths and cycles Planar graphs
Regions Euler characteristic Edge-Face Handshaking Girth Dual Graph Scheduling

2
Graph Coloring

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Euler and Hamilton Paths -Motivation

An pictorial way to motivate the graph theoretic concepts of Eulerian and Hamiltonian paths and circuits is with two puzzles: The pencil drawing problem The taxicab problem
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Pencil Drawing Problem -Euler Paths

Which of the following pictures can be drawn on paper without ever lifting the pencil and without retracing over any segment?
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Graph Theoretically: Which of the following graphs has an Euler path?
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Answer: the left but not the right.
1 start 4 5
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2 3 6 finish
Euler Paths and Circuits Definition

DEF: An Euler path in a graph G is a simple path containing every edge in G. An Euler circuit (or Euler cycle) is a cycle which is an Euler path. NOTE: The definition applies both to undirected as well as directed graphs of all types.
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Taxicab Problem -Hamilton Paths

Can a taxicab driver milk his hapless customer by visiting every intersection exactly once, when driving from point A to point B ? A
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Taxicab Problem -Hamilton Paths

Graph Theoretically: Is there a Hamilton path from A to B in the following graph? (NO in this case)
A
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Hamilton Paths and Circuits Definition

DEF: A Hamilton path in a graph G is a path which visits ever vertex in G exactly once. A Hamilton circuit (or Hamilton cycle) is a cycle which visits every vertex exactly once, except for the first vertex, which is also visited at the end of the cycle. NOTE: Again, the definition applies both to undirected as well as directed graphs of all types.
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Implications to CS
Finding Hamilton paths is a very important problem in CS. EG: Visit every city (vertex) in a region using the least trips (edges) as possible. EG: Encode all bit strings of a certain length as economically as possible so that only change one bit at a time. (Gray codes).
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Implications to CS
Analyzing difficulty of Euler vs. Hamilton paths is a great CS case study. Finding Euler paths can be done in O (n) time Finding Hamilton paths is NPcomplete! Slight change in definition can result in dramatic algorithmic bifurcation!
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Finding Euler Paths

To find Euler paths, well first give an algorithm for finding Euler cycles and then modify it to give Euler paths. THM: An undirected graph G has an Euler circuit iff it is connected and every vertex has even degree. NOTE: for directed graphs the condition is that G be weakly connected and that every vertex has same in-degree as outdegree.
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Finding Euler Circuits

Q: Why does the following graph have no Euler circuit?
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14

A: It contains a vertex of odd degree.
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Lets prove the theorem constructively. Constructive means that the proof will actually contain an algorithm for constructing the Euler path, when it exists. Part 1) Suppose G is connected and each vertex has even degree. Construct an Euler cycle. We prove this by strong induction on m the number of edges in G. Base case m = 0: Since G is connected and contains no edges, it must consist of a single vertex. The empty path is an Euler cycle.1
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Induction step for m+1 edges, assuming proved this up to m 0. CLAIM: G contains a simple cycle. Consider an edge e (since m+1 > 0). If e is a self-loop, then is a simple cycle. So can assume that e is a loopless edge:
Since deg(v ) > 1 (all degrees are even), another edge e must be incident with v :
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17

So can continue adding edges until we find an edge whose new endpoint has already been encountered during the process. This endpoint is a vertex which is seen twice so at which a simple cycle is based! (This proves claim)
Simple cycle
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Gives rise to a recursive proof/algorithm: 1) Find a simple cycle in connected graph with m+1 edges. 2) Delete all the edges from the cycle and find Euler cycles in each resulting component 3) Amalgamate Euler cycles together using the simple cycle obtaining wanted Euler cycle. Lets see how the amalgamation process works:
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Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars
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20

Found a cycle after starting from middle vertex.
Delete the cycle:
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Delete the cycle:
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22

Delete the cycle:
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23

Delete the cycle:
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Delete the cycle:
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25
Now try again (say from middle vertex):
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This time, found a cycle starting and ending at middle vertex:
Amalgamate these cycles together from a point of intersection, and delete from graph:
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Find another cycle from middle vertex:

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2 3

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2 3
1 4

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2 3
1 4 5

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2 3
1 4 5

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7
2 3 1 4 5 6

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7
2 3 1 4 5 6

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9 2 3 1 4
7
5 6

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10
2 3 1 4 5
7
6

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10
2 3 1 11 4 5
7
6

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10
2 3 1 11 4 5
7
6
Amalgamate it to Euler cycle of deleted graph, and delete it. Need to insert cycle between former edges 10 & 11:
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Finally, need to add the triangle.
9 8
10
2 3 1 ?? 4 5
7
6
Use same nave approach looking for cycle in remaining component:

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9 8
10
2 3 1 ?? 4 11 5
7
6

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9 8
10
2 3 1 ?? 4 11
12
7
5 6

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9 8 11 4
13 12
10
2 3 1 ??
7
6

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9 8
10
2 3 1 ?? 4
14 11
13 12
7
6

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9 8
10
2 3 1 15 4
14 11
13 12
7
6

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10
2 3 1 15 4
14 11
13 12
7
6
Amalgamate the triangle cycle between edges formerly labeled 9 & 10:
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??
2 3 1 ?? 4
?? ??
?? ??
7
6
Amalgamate the triangle cycle between edges formerly labeled 9 & 10:
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We found the Euler circuit!
10 9 8
11
2
12
13
18 4
1 3
17 14
16 15
7
6
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Euler Circuit All Degrees Even

2nd half of theorem says that an Euler circuit in a graph implies that all degrees are even: In a simple cycle, whenever path enters vertex, must come out on different edge. Thus every visit of v contributes 2 to deg(v). Thus, if keep only edges which were on the simple cycle, degrees of resulting graph are all even. But in an Eulerian graph G, can find a simple cycle containing all vertices and consequently graph resulting from cycle is G itself!
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Generalizing to Euler Paths

Q: Does the following have an Euler circuit?
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50

A: No, vertices of odd degree:
Q: But why does it have an Euler path?

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A: YES! Because exactly 2 vertices of odd degree.
So can add a phantom edge between odd degree vertices:

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All degrees now even so find Euler cycle:

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1 3 4 2
7
5
Now remove phantom edge obtaining:

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1 3 4 5 6 2
Generalize:
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THM: An undirected connected graph has an Euler path iff there are exactly two vertices of odd degree.
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Blackboard Exercises for 7.5

1) Prove by induction that Qn always has a Hamilton cycle for n > 1. (This
gives a Gray code). 2) Prove that the following graph has no Hamilton cycle:
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Planar Graphs
Planar graphs are graphs that can be drawn
in the plane without edges having to cross. Understanding planar graph is important: Any graph representation of maps/ topographical information is planar.
graph algorithms often specialized to planar graphs (e.g. traveling salesperson)
Circuits usually represented by planar graphs

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Planar Graphs -Common Misunderstanding

Just because a graph is drawn with edges crossing doesnt mean its not planar. Q: Why cant we conclude that the following is non-planar?
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59

A: Because it is isomorphic to a graph which is planar:
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Proving Planarity
To prove that a graph is planar amounts to redrawing the edges in a way that no edges will cross. May need to move vertices around and the edges may have to be drawn in a very indirect fashion. E.G. show that the 3-cube is planar:
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Proving Planarity 3-Cube
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Proving Planarity? 4-Cube
Seemingly not planar, but how would one prove this!

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Disproving Planarity
The book gives several methods. Ill describe one method that will always work in examples that youll get on the final. You may also use any of the methods that the book mentions. (One method Kuratowskis theorem in principle always works, though in practice can be quite unwieldy.)
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Disproving Planarity
The idea is to try to find some invariant quantities possessed by graphs which are constrained to certain values, for planar graphs. Then to show that a graph is non-planar, compute the quantities and show that they do not satisfy the constraints on planar graphs.
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Regions
The first invariant of a planar graph will be the number of regions that the graph defines in the plane. A region is a part of the plane completely disconnected off from other parts of the plane by the edges of the graph. EG: the car graph has 4 regions:
4
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3 1 2
74
Regions
Q: How many regions does the 3-cube have?
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Regions
A: 6 regions
3
4 1 5 2
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Regions
THM: The number of regions defined by a connected planar graph is invariant of how it is drawn in the plane and satisfies the formula involving edges and vertices: r = |E | - |V | + 2 EG: Verify formula for car and 3-cube:
4=6-4+2
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6=12-8+2
2
3
4 1 5
77
Euler Characteristic
The formula is proved by showing that the quantity (chi) c = r - |E | + |V | must equal 2 for planar graphs. c is called the Euler characteristic. The idea is that any connected planar graph can be built up from a vertex through a sequence of vertex and edge additions. For example, build 3-cube as follows:
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79
Thus to prove that c is always 2 for planar graphs, one calculate c for the trivial vertex graph: c = 1-0+1 = 2 and then checks that each possible move does not change c .
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80
Check that moves dont change c : EG: 1) Adding a degree 1 vertex: r is unchanged. |E | increases by 1. |V | increases by 1. c += (0-1+1) 2) Adding an edge between pre-existing vertices:
EG:
r increases by 1. |E | increases by 1. |V |
unchanged. c += (1-1+0)
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Animated Invariance of Euler Characteristic

c= r - |E | + |V | 2
|V | 1
|E | 0
r
1
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82

c= r - |E | + |V | 2
|V | 2
|E | 1
r
1
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c= r - |E | + |V | 2
|V | 3
|E | 2
r
1
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84

c= r - |E | + |V | 2
|V | 4
|E | 3
r
1
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c= r - |E | + |V | 2
|V | 4
|E | 4
r
2
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c= r - |E | + |V | 2
|V | 5
|E | 5
r
2
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c= r - |E | + |V | 2
|V | 6
|E | 6
r
2
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c= r - |E | + |V | 2
|V | 7
|E | 7
r
2
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c= r - |E | + |V | 2
|V | 8
|E | 8
r
2
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90

c= r - |E | + |V | 2
|V | 8
|E | 9
r
3
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c= r - |E | + |V | 2
|V | 8
|E | 10
r
4
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c= r - |E | + |V | 2
|V | 8
|E | 11
r
5
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c= r - |E | + |V | 2
|V | 8
|E | 12
r
6
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Face-Edge Handshaking
For all graphs handshaking theorem relates degrees of vertices to number of edges. For planar graphs, can relate regions to edges in similar fashion: EG: There are two ways to count the number of edges in 3-cube: 1) Count directly: 12 2) Count no. of edges around each region; divide by 2: (4+4+4+4+4+4)/2 = 12 (2 triangles per edge)
Face-Edge Handshaking
DEF: The degree of a region F is the number of edges at its boundary, and is denoted by deg(F ). THM: Let G be a planar graph with region set R. Then:
1 | E | deg( F ) 2 FR
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Girth
The girth of a graph is the length of the smallest simple cycle in the graph. Q: What the girth of each of the following?
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97
Girth
A: g=2
g=4
g=4
Q: What the smallest possible girth for L25 simple bipartite graphs?
98
Girth
A: g = 4 is the smallest possible girth: Any cycle must start and end in the same color, so must have even length. Since simple, cannot have a 2-cycle, so 4-cycle is shortest possible.
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99
Proving that Q4 is Non-Planar

Now we have enough invariants to prove that the 4-cube is non-planar. 1) Count the number of vertices and edges: |V | = 16 (twice the number for 3-cube) |E | = 32 (twice the number for 3-cube plus number of vertices in 3-cube) 2) Suppose 4-cube were planar so by Eulers formula number of regions would be: r = 32-16+2=18
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Proving that Q4 is Non-Planar

3) Calculate the girth: g = 4 4) Apply handshaking theorem to get a lower bound on the number of edges, since the degree of each face must be at least as large as the girth:
In our case, this give |E | 184=36 contradicting |E | = 32 ! Thus 4-cube cannot be planar. 101 L25
1 1 1 | E | deg( F ) g rg 2 FR 2 FR 2
Blackboard exercises for 7.7

Show that the following graphs are nonplanar:
1) K5 2) K3,3 3) Qn for n 4
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Graph Coloring
Consider a fictional continent.
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Map Coloring
Suppose removed all borders but still wanted to see all the countries. 1 color insufficient.
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Map Coloring
So add another color. Try to fill in every country with one of the two colors.
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Map Coloring
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Map Coloring
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Map Coloring
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Map Coloring
PROBLEM: Two adjacent countries forced to have same color. Border unseen.
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Map Coloring
So add another color:
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Map Coloring
Insufficient. Need 4 colors because of this country.
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Map Coloring
With 4 colors, could do it.
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4-Color Theorem
THM: Any planar map of regions can be depicted using 4 colors so that no two regions that share a positive-length border have the same color. Proof by Haaken and Appel used exhaustive computer search.
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From Map Coloring to Graph Coloring

The problem of coloring a map, can be reduced to a graph-theoretic problem:
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For each region introduce a vertex:
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For each pair of regions with a positivelength common border introduce an edge:
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From Maps to Graphs to Dual Graphs

Really, could think of original map as a graph, and we are looking at dual graph:
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Dual Graphs :
1) Put vertex inside each region:
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Dual Graphs :
2) Connect vertices across common edges:
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Definition of Dual Graph

DEF: The dual graph G ^ of a planar graph G = (V, E, R) [Vertices, Edges, Regions] is the graph obtained by setting
Vertices of G ^: V (G ^ ) = R Edges of G ^: E (G ^ ) = set of edges of the form {F1,F2} where F1 and F2 share a common edge.
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So take dual graph:
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Coloring regions is equivalent to coloring vertices of dual graph.
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Definition of Colorable
DEF: Let n be a positive number. A simple graph is n -colorable if the vertices can be colored using n colors so that no two adjacent vertices have the same color. The chromatic number of a graph is smallest number n for which it is n colorable. EG: A graph is bipartite iff it is 2-colorable.
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Map not 2-colorable, so dual graph not 2colorable:
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Map not 3-colorable, so graph not 3colorable:
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Graph is 4-colorable, so map is as well:
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4-Color Theorem Graph Theory Version

THM: Any planar graph is 4-colorable.
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Graph Coloring and Schedules

EG: Suppose want to schedule some final exams for CS courses with following call numbers: 1007, 3137, 3157, 3203, 3261, 4115, 4118, 4156 Suppose also that there are no common students in the following pairs of courses because of prerequisites: 1007-3137 1007-3157, 3137-3157 1007-3203 1007-3261, 3137-3261, 3203-3261 1007-4115, 3137-4115, 3203-4115, 3261-4115 1007-4118, 3137-4118 1007-4156, 3137-4156, 3157-4156 How many exam slots are necessary to schedule exams?
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Turn this into a graph coloring problem. Vertices are courses, and edges are courses which cannot be scheduled simultaneously because of possible students in common:
3203
3137
3261
4115
1007
3157
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4118
4156
129

One way to do this is to put edges down where students mutually excluded
3203 3137 1007 3157 4156 3261 4115 4118
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130

and then compute the complementary graph:
3203 3137 1007 3157 4156 3261 4115 4118
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and then compute the complementary graph:
3203 3137 1007 3157 4156 3261 4115 4118
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Redraw:
3137 1007 3203 3261 4115 3157 4156
4118
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Not 1-colorable because of edge
3137 1007 3203 3261 4115 3157 4156
4118
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Not 2-colorable because of triangle
3137 1007 3203 3261 4115 3157 4156
4118
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Is 3-colorable. Try to color by Red, Green, Blue.
3137 1007 3203 3261 4115 3157 4156
4118
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136

WLOG. 3203-Red, 3157-Blue, 4118-Green:
3137 1007 3203 3261 4115 3157 4156
4118
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137

So 4156 must be Blue:
3137 1007 3203 3261 4115 3157 4156
4118
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So 3261 and 4115 must be Red.
3137 1007 3203 3261 4115 3157 4156
4118
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3137 and 1007 easy to color.
3137 1007 3203 3261 4115 3157 4156
4118
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So need 3 exam slots:
3137 3203 3261
Slot 2
4115
Slot 1
1007 3157 4156
4118
Slot 3
141
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Euler and Hamilton Cycles; Planar Graphs; Coloring.

Copyright Zeph Grunschlag, 2001-2002.

Regions Euler characteristic Edge-Face Handshaking Girth Dual Graph Scheduling

Euler and Hamilton Paths -Motivation

Pencil Drawing Problem -Euler Paths

Pencil Drawing Problem -Euler Paths

Pencil Drawing Problem -Euler Paths

Euler Paths and Circuits Definition

Taxicab Problem -Hamilton Paths

Taxicab Problem -Hamilton Paths

Hamilton Paths and Circuits Definition

Finding Euler Paths

Finding Euler Circuits

Finding Euler Circuits

Finding Euler Circuits

Finding Euler Circuits

Finding Euler Circuits

Finding Euler Circuits

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Delete the cycle:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Delete the cycle:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Delete the cycle:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Delete the cycle:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Delete the cycle:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Now try again (say from middle vertex):

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Find another cycle from middle vertex:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Find another cycle from middle vertex:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Find another cycle from middle vertex:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Find another cycle from middle vertex:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Find another cycle from middle vertex:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Find another cycle from middle vertex:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Find another cycle from middle vertex:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Find another cycle from middle vertex:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Find another cycle from middle vertex:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Find another cycle from middle vertex:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Find another cycle from middle vertex:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Use same nave approach looking for cycle in remaining component:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Use same nave approach looking for cycle in remaining component:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Use same nave approach looking for cycle in remaining component:

Finding Euler Circuits Mohammeds Scimitars

Use same nave approach looking for cycle in remaining component: