Basic Electrical Characteristics

Carl Landinger
Hendrix Wire & Cable
2
When Electric Current Flows
in a Path
1 There is a voltage (electrical pressure)
driving the current
2 An electric field eminates from the current
path
3 A magnetic field surrounds the current
4 Except for superconductors, there is some
resistance/impedance to the current flow
5 There is a loop path to-from the source
3
A Cable Carrying Current has a Magnetic
Field Associated with the Current Flow
CONDUCTOR
INSULATION
MAGNETIC FIELD FLUX LINES EXTEND OUT TO INFINITY
NOTE THAT ANY COVERING OR INSULATION DOES NOT
ALTER THE MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
4
Two Cables Carrying Current Will Have
Magnetic Fields Interacting With Each Other
Cable #1
Cable #2
MAGNETIC FIELD (FLUX) FROM EACH CABLE LINKS
THE ADJACENT CABLE
THIS CAUSES A FORCE TO EXIST BETWEEN THE CABLES.
IF THE CURRENTS ARE TIME VARYING, A VOLTAGE IS INDUCED
INTO THE ADJACENT CABLE.


5
Force on Adjacent Current
Carrying Conductors
I
1
d

I
2
DC: F =
54
10
1 2
7
.
I xI x
d

lbs./ft.
For RMS Symmetrical current Single Phase Symmetrical


AC: F =
108
10
1 2
7
.
I xI x
d

lbs./ft.
6
Force on Adjacent Current
Carrying Conductors
A B C
d d
I
I
I
RMS Symmetrical Current
3u Asymmetrical Fault
A or Cu
Maximum
34 9
10
2 7
.
I x
d

F =
lbs./ft.
Bu
Maximum
F =
37 5
10
2 7
.
I x
d

lbs./ft.
7
Force on Adjacent Current
Carrying Conductors
A C
d d
I
I
I
RMS Symmetrical Current
3u Asymmetrical Fault
( ) 34 9 10 10
05
4
2
7
.
.
x x

= 689 lbs./ft.
Assume: I = 10,000 Amps/Phase, d = 6in. (0.5 ft.)
Maximum Force on A or C Phase is:
This is no small amount of force!
8
Resistivity Vs Conductivity
Resistivity is a property of every material
Resistivity is a measure of a material to resist the
flow of DC current
Resistivity is stated as per unit volume or weight
at a specific temperature
Conductivity is a measure of a material to conduct
DC current and is the reciprocal of resistivity
Materials having a low resistivity make good
conductors. Materials with high resistivities are
insulators.
9
Percent Conductivity
The conductivity of conductor grade annealed
copper was established as the standard and given
as 100% (IACS)
Other materials are stated as a percentage of being
as conductive of this standard
Aluminum is approximately 61% as conductive as
annealed copper on a volume basis. However, it is
over twice as conductive on a weight basis.
It is possible to exceed 100% i.e. silver is 104.6%
Metal purity and temper effect conductivity
10
Relationship Between
Resistance and Volume Resistivity
l = length height = h
current flow w = width Area = w X h
Resistance =
Volume Resistivity x Length
Area
11
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
R
T2
= R
T1
[1 + o(T
2
T
1
) + |(T
2
T
1
)
2
|

where:
R
T2
= DC resistance of conductor at desired or
assumed temperature
R
T1
= DC resistance of conductor at base temperature
T
2
= Assumed temperature to which dc resistance is
to be adjusted
T
1
= Base temperature at which resistance is known

o and | = Temperature coefficients of resistance
at the base temperature for the conductor


12
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
(Continued)
For the range of temperatures in which most conductors
operate the formula reduces to

R
T2
= R
T1
[1 + o(T
2
T
1
)|

values for o



Conductor 0C 20C 25C
61.2% Aluminum 0.00440 0.00404 0.00389
100.0% Copper 0.00427 0.00393 0.00378
13
Effective AC Resistance
Effective ac resistance is required for voltage
drop calculations
Effective ac resistance includes
Skin effect
Proximity effect
Hysteresis and Eddy current effects
Radiation loss
Shield/sheath loss
Conduit/pipe loss
14
Alternating Current Resistance
For the general case when calculating impedance for
voltage drop or system coordination;
R
ac
= R
dc
(1 + Y
CS
+ Y
CP
) + AR
Where:
Y
CS
is the multiple increase due to skin effect
Y
CP
is the multiple increase due to proximity effect
AR is the apparent increase due to shield loss, sheath
loss, armor loss, ..

Note: The presence of enclosing metallic, magnetic and non-
magnetic conduit or raceway will increase these factors as
well

15
Alternating Current Resistance
When Calculating for Ampacity Determination
R
ac
= R
dc
(1 + Y
CS
+ Y
CP
)
Where;
Y
CS
is the multiple increase due to skin effect
Y
CP
is the multiple increase due to proximity effect
Shield loss, sheath loss, armor loss, are handled as
separate heat sources introduced at their location in
the thermal circuit.
Note; The presence of enclosing metallic, magnetic and non-
magnetic conduit or raceway will increase all of these factors.

16
Insulation Thickness
Cables are voltage rated phase to phase
based on a grounded WYE three phase
system unless stated
Thus, unless otherwise noted, the insulation
thickness is designed for a voltage equal to the
cable voltage rating divided by 1.732
For a 15kV cable the insulation thickness is
designed for; 15 kV/1.732 = 8.66 kV
Cables used on other systems must be selected
accordingly
17
Insulation Thickness
For an ungrounded 15 kV delta system the voltage
to the neutral point varies from 15 kV/1.732
depending on load balance. For this case, it is
common to select insulation thickness based on
1.33 x 15 kV or 20 kV as long as a fault to GRD.
is cleared within 1 hour.
This is the origin of the 133% insulation level
The insulation thickness for a 20 kV cable is 215
mils/ICEA, 220 mils/AEIC
18
Insulation Thickness
When a phase to ground fault occurs on an
ungrounded delta system, full phase to phase
voltage appears across the insulation
For 15 kV this is equivalent to a 15 X 1.732 = 26 kV
cable.
If such a fault is to be allowed to exist for more than 1
hour, it is common to select insulation thickness based
on this voltage.
This is the origin of the 173% level
the 173% level is not common and the values are not
widely published
19
Insulation Resistance
No insulation is perfect. If the conductor is made into
one electrode, and the shield over the insulation, or made
shield such as water is used as the other electrode, and a
Direct Current Voltage E, applied across the electrodes, a
current I, will flow. Using Ohms Law, E = I/R, an
insulation resistance can be calculated.
E
I
.
.
R = insulation resistance (ohms) = E/I
20
Typical DC Leakage Current
With Constant Voltage Applied
I
G
= charging current
I
A
= absorbtion current
I
L
= leakage current
I
T
= total current
I
L
21
Insulation Resistance Constant
If one uses a 100 to 500 volt DC source to measure the
resistance from conductor to shield, or a made shield such
as water, of a 1,000 foot length of insulated cable at a
temperature of 60F, the following formula describes the
relationship between the insulation thickness, the
resistance reading obtained, and a constant which is
peculiar to the insulation;
R = (IRK) Log
10
(D/d)
Where; R is the resistance in megohms-1,000 feet
D is the diameter over the insulation
d is the diameter under the insulation
IRK is the insulation resistance constant
22
Insulation Resistance Constants Non
Rubber Like Materials
Impregnated Paper 2,640
Varnished Cambric 2,460
Crosslinked Polyethylene 0-2 kV 10,000
Crosslinked Polyethylene > 2 kV 20,000
Thermoplastic Polyethylene 50,000
Composite Polyethylene 30,000
60C Thermoplastic PVC 500
75C Thermoplastic PVC 2,000
23
Insulation Resistance Constants
Rubber Like Materials
Ethylene Propylene Rubber Type I 20,000
Ethylene Propylene Rubber Type II, 0-2kV 10,000
Ethylene Propylene Rubber Type II, >2kV 20,000
Code Grade Synthetic Rubber 950
Performance Natural Rubber 10,560
Performance Synthetic Rubber 2,000
Heat Resistant Natural Rubber 10,560
Heat Resistant Synthetic Rubber 2,000
Ozone Resistant Synthetic Rubber 2,000
Ozone Resistant Butyl Rubber 10,000
Kerite 4,000
24
Insulation Resistance Constant
Important Notes
+ If the measurement is not made at 60 F but at a
temperature not less than 50 or more than 85F, correction
factors must be used to correct to 60
+ If the measurement is made on a length other than 1,000
feet, correction to an equivalent 1,000 foot length is
necessary
+ Insulation Resistance Constants (IRK) are published for
different classes of insulations. These are minimums and
actual values obtained from test measurements should
exceed these values or there is an indication of a problem
in the material or test
+ Using IRK to determine the condition of cables in the field
is difficult and subject to error
25
Cable Average Electrical Stress
G
ave
= Voltage to Ground
Insulation thickness (mils)
G
ave
= volts/mil
T
26
Cable Radial Electrical Stress at
Any Point in the Insulation
G
x
= Vgrd Volts/Mil
X Ln(R
2
/R
1
)
.
R
1
X
R
2
Maximum Stress X = R
1


Minimum Stress X = R
2
27
STRESS GRADIENT IN #2-7 STRAND
175 MIL CABLE AT 7.2 kV ac
Maximum Stress = 60.7 V/mil
Minimum Stress = 29.2 V/mil
28
STRESS GRADIENT IN 1/0-19 STRAND
345 MIL CABLE AT 20.2 kV ac
Maximum Stress = 105 V/mil
Minimum Stress = 36.0 V/mil
29
The Formula for Calculating Per Foot
Capacitance For Fully Shielded Cable Is:
C
D
D
oi
oc
=
7 354
10
.
log
c
x 10
-12
where, c is the dielectric constant of the covering
Doc is the diameter over the conductor (or semi conducting
shield, if used)
Doi is the diameter over the covering (or insulation in the
case of shielded cables)
30
Shunt Capacitive Reactance
For single conductor shielded primary cables the shunt
capacitance may be calculated by



where:
c = dielectric constant of the insulation
Doi =diameter over insulation
Dui = diameter under insulation
The capacitive reactance may then be calculated as:
C
Log
D
D
oi
ui
=
7354
10
c
farad/1000 ft
X
j fc
c
=
1
2t

where:
f = frequency in Hz
j = a vector operator

31
The Formula for Calculating Charging Current,
Per Foot, For A Fully Shielded Cable Is:
i = 2tfce


i = Charging current
f = 60Hz
e = Voltage Phase to grd
c = Capacitance
32
Example of Charging Current, per
Foot, For Fully Shielded Cable
i
x
Log
=
|
\

|
.
|

(
(
(
(
2 60
7 354 2 3
1566
1056
10
t
. .
.
.
x 10
-12
x (14.4 x 10
3
) = 0.539 milliamps/ft
c = 2.3
Doc = 1.056 inch
Doi = 1.566 inch
e = 14.4 kV to ground
33
Power Factor Vs Dissipation Factor
A Cable is Generally a Capacitor
Ic
a
b
Ir
Ic should be >>>Ir
Power Factor =
Ir
I I
r c
( ) ( )
2 2
+
= Cos (b) always < 1.0
Dissipation Factor = Ir/Ic = Tan (a) ranging from 0 to

For the normal case where Ic>>>Ir;

Ic Ir Ic ~ + ( ) ( )
2 2
So, Power Factor and Dissipation Factor are often thought to be
the same, but they are very different.
34
Dielectric Power Dissipation
(Dielectric Loss)
Ic It
o
u
Power Dissipation
P = E (Ir)
= E (It) cos u
= E(Ic) tan o

BUT;

Ic = 2tfCE
P = 2tfCE
2
(Tan o )
Ir E
35
Inductive Reactance
L Log
GMD
GMR
X =

01404 10
10
3
. henries to neut. per 1000 ft.
Where: GMD = Geometric mean distance (equivalent conductor
spacing) between the current carrying cables.
GMR = Geometric mean radius of one conductor - inches

At 60 Hz: 2t(frequency) = 377
or
X
L
= j0.05292 Log
10
GMD/GMR ohm to neut. per 1000 ft.

j is a vector operator
36
Geometric Mean Distance
Equilateral Triangle
GMD =A=B=C
Right Triangle
GMD = 1.123 A
Unequal triangle
GMD =
AxBxC
3
A C
B A
C
B
B A
C
37
Geometric Mean Distance
A B
C
Symmetrical Flat
GMD = 1.26 A
A B
C
Unsymmetrical Flat
GMD =
AxBxC
3
A
Flat
GMD = A
38
Effective Cross Sectional Area of
Sheath/shield (A)
Type of Shield/Sheath Formula to Calculate (A)
Wires/Braid nds
2

Helical Tape, no lap 1.27 nwb
Helical Tape, lapped
4
100
2 100
bd
L
m
( )

Corrugated Tape, LCS
127 50 . [ ( ) ] t d B b
is
+ +

Tubular 4bd
m


B-Tape Lap (mils) n-Number of wires/tapes
b-Tape Thickness (mils) L-Tape overlap, %
d
is
-Dia over Ins. Shield (mils)
d
m
-Mean sheath/shield Dia. (mils)
d
s
-Dia. of wires (mils)
w-Tape width (mils)