Definition of Map Terms

Map Scale = Chart Length / Earth Length

Small Scale Big Area Less Detail
1:1,000,000

Large Scale Small Area More Detail

1:250,000

Great-Circle Distance: the shortest distance between two points on the curved surface of the earth lies along the great circle passing through these points Rhum Line : is a line crossing all meridians at a constant angle.
This is the line which an aircraft tends to follow when steered by a compass It is a greater distance than the great-circle route between the same two points

Advantages to fly a Rhumb Line course instead of great circle

1. In low latitude, a R/L closely approximates a great circle 2. Over short distances, a R/L and G.C. nearly coincide 3. A R/L between points on or near the same meridian of longitude approximates a great circle

Definition of Map Terms

Conformality (correct representation of angles) :
1. To be conformal, a chart must have uniform scale around any points, though not necessarily a uniform scale over the entire map. 2. Meridians and Parallels must intersect at right angle Mercator and Lambert are conformal

Developed and Undeveloped Surface

The surface of sphere or spheroid is said to be undevelopable because no part of it may be spread out flat without distortion A plane, cylinder or cone which can be easily flattened, is called developable surface . Projection on these surface are termed Conical, Cylindrical, and Azimuthal Projection

Develop for flat of the earth 2.Cylinder 3.Cone 1.Plane

Azimuthal

Cylindrical

Conical

Point of Tangency
Names of Charts are different due to point of tangency such as a plane of projection tangent. Tangent at the Equator, called Equatorial Proj Tangent at the Poles, called Polar Proj Tangent at other places, called Oblique Proj

Point of Tangency
N
N

E W

E W

Tangent at Pole called POLAR

Tangent at Equator called EQUITORAIL

Tangent at other point called OBLIQUE

 Projection
The method of representing all or part of the surface of a sphere or spheroid on a plane surface is called a map or chart project.

Projection

Gnomonic Proj (Proj from the center of the sphere)

Stereo Proj (Proj from the opposite side of the sphere)

Orthographic Proj (Proj from the infinity)

Azimuthal Projection
1. Polar Tangency 3 names
1. Polar Azimuthal Gnomonic Proj 2. Polar Azimuthal Stergographic Proj 3. Polar Azimuthal Orthographic Proj

2. Oblique Tangency 3 names

1. Oblique Azimuthal Gnomonic Proj 2. Oblique Azimuthal Stergographic Proj 3. Oblique Azimuthal Orthographic Proj

Azimuthal Projection
3. Equitorail Tangency 3 names
1. Equitorail Azimuthal Gnomonic Proj 2. Equitorail Azimuthal Stergographic Proj 3. Equitorail Azimuthal Orthographic Proj

Common Charts Used in Navigation

1. Map Reading 2. Plotting and Measuring Course Directions and Distance

Ideal Chart
1. Comformality ( )
Parallels and meridians must intersect at 90 Scale or scale expansion must be the same along the meridians as it is along the parallels Scale vary point to point but it is the same in all direction (Scale of any point independent from Azimuth)

Ideal Chart
2. Constant and Correct Scale
Constant ratio to bear to distance on the earth

3. Correct Shape Representation 4. Correct Area Representation 5. Coordinate Easy to Located 6. Rhumd Lines as Straight Lines (Mercator map) 7. True Azimuth

Cylindrical Projection (Mercator)

The only cylindrical projection used for air NAV is the MERCATOR GERHARD MERCATOR design this type of chart first in 1569 The other types of the Mercator are Oblique Mercator and Transverse Mercator N

Plane Mercator

Oblique Mercator

S Transverse Mercator Polar Cylindrical Gnomonic Proj

Mercator Projection
Its graticule can be imagined by visualizing a cylinder tangent at the equator to a translucent globe with a light source at the center. All parallels and meridians on the globe will be projected on the cylinder as straight lines crossing at right angles Meridians will be evenly spaced, whereas distance between parallels will increase rapidly with latitude. Scale on a Mercator is true only along the equator. Elsewhere it expands as the secant of the latitude, so that at 60N or S , scale is twice that at the equator.

 Best suited for use Mercator Projection is within 25 - 30 of the equator In low latitudes, rhumb line and great circle will be close together; at middle and upper latitudes the amount of divergence becomes quite marked. The great-circle route will always be shorter, and it is part of the navigators duty to determine whether the bother of plotting and the increased risk of error in flying a series of changing heading is justified by the saving in distance.

Characteristic of Mercator
1.

Conformality
The meridians and parallel appear as straight lines, intersected together at right angle

2.

Area
The area is not equal and are Greatly exaggerated in height Lat.

3.

Scale
Scale correct only at the equator else where it expand as the secant of Lat . Using mid-lat scale to measure distance

4. 5.

Great Circle appear as curve line convex to the nearest pole RHUM Line appear as a straight lines (The meridian parallel together)
1. Rhum Line is the lines the success that cross the successive meridian at the same angle

 Rhumb Line
Between 2 points, the shortest distance is the great circle Fly by Rhum Line Track, the pilot must not change HDG all the time

The Advantage of Mercator

1. Position in Lat and Long are easy to plot 2. Easy to fly follow R/L track

The Disadvantage of Mercator

1. Difficulty of measuring large distance accurately 2. Conversion angle (C.A) must be applied to Great Circle bearing before plotting 3. The chart is useless in polar region above 80N or S since the polar cannot be shown conversion angle

Conversion Angle
The meridians converge towards the poles . A Great Circle (GC) gives shortest distance between 2 positions while R/L running between the same position cut meridian at the same angle. It is spiral curve and therefore represent a longer distance that means that there will be a difference between the R/L angle which the GC angle at the start point and the ending point of the track

Conversion Angle
Conversion Angle (CA) is the angular difference between a great circle bearing and a R/L bearing Or angle between a great circle are joining two places on earth and a R/L between the two places

CA = (C(CH) Long /2) sin mean Lat

 Difference of Long (D Long) is the angular difference between two longitude angle from 0 Long to 180 E and 180 W Long such as : from A to B DLong = 150-15 =135 W

Pri-meridian Greenwich Meridian

15W

NP

DLong 135W

150W Anti-meridian

 Change of Long (CH.Long) is the angular difference between two Longitude angles (In case of crossing prime-meridian or antimeridian
From A to C CH.Long = 15W + 60E = 75E From C to B CH.Long = 120E + 30W = 150W CH.Long (180-60)+(180-150) 75E
C 60E A 15W

Note: Same Direction (-)

East CH.Long 150W B 150W West

Difference Direction (+)

 Difference of Lat (DLat) is the angular difference between two Lat. Angle . For instance, the north pole and the equator have a DLat of 90 from the north pole to the equator the DLat is 90S. If from the south pole to equator , DLat is 90 N From 20N to 40N DLat = 20N 1 = 60 NM yield 20N = 2060 = 1200 NM
40N 20N

 Change of Lat (CH.Lat) is the angular different between two Lat angle (in case of crossing equator) such as from 30N to 30S CH.Lat is 60S. if from 30S to 30N CH.Lat 60N
CH.Lat 60N 30N 0 30S CH.Lat 60S

 Example, When the A/C is in position Lat3515S Long 1045E and ground station is Lat 2545S Long 0215W what is conversion angle value? Solve CA=D(CH) Long /2 sin mean Lat CH Long = 1045E + 0215W = 13 Mean Lat = (3515S + 2545S) / 2 = 61/2 = 3030 = 31 CA. = (13 /2) sin 31 = 3

Conic Projection
The Conic Projection bases on cone tangent reduce earth every place The great majority of aeronautical chart in use today are based on conic projection There are 2 classes of conic proj.
1. Simple Conic Proj with one Standard Parallel (S.P.) a lot of error 2. Conic Proj with 2 S.P. And expand out of S.P.

Lambert Conformal Conic Projection

In a simple conic project the cone is held tangent to the globe along a line of latitude called the standard parallel. Scale is exact everywhere along this standard parallel, but increase rapidly above and below Lambert visualized the cone as making a secant cut, thus giving two standard parallels Scale along both is exact. Between them, scale is too small, beyond them too large.

 For equal distribution of scale error, standard parallels are chosen at one-sixth and five-sixths of the total spread of latitude to be represented.
To map the U.S, whose lat is from 25 to 49 , standard parallels of 29 and 45 (one-sixth and five-sixths of the total spread ) would produce an equal distribution of scale error.

Conic Projection

Simple Conic Proj with one Standard Parallel (S.P.)

Lambert Conic Proj with two Standard Parallel (S.P.)

101% 100% 98% 100%

The Lambert
All meridians are straight lines that meet in a common point beyond limits of the map Parallels are concentric circles whose center is at the point of intersection of the meridians Meridians and parallels intersect at right angles Since scale is very nearly uniform around any point on a given chart, it is considered a conformal projection For map reading and radio navigation the projection is unequaled , and most areas of the world through 80 latitude are covered by aeronautical charts with scale of 1:500,000 and 1:1,000,000 Above 80 , scale on a standard Lambert is too inaccurate for navigational use.

Characteristic of The Lambert

1. Conformal 2. Scale correct on S.P. contracted inside and expand outside 3. Area not an equal area 4. Shape distortion small 5. GC. curves concave to parallel of origin considered as straight line 6. Rhumb Line curves concave to nearer pole 7. Graticule meridians straight line , - parallel concentric circle

Polar Stereographic Projection

A flat surface is used, touching the N.P. The light is at the S.P. The polar sterographic is modified by using a secant plane instead of tangent plane A secant
NP
90N

SP

 Modified polar stereographic proj. used secant plane as plane of tangency (Graticule) The meridians are straight lines, radiating from the pole. The parallels are concentric circles expands away from the pole 180
270 NP 090

Polar Sterographic Graticule

Greenwich Meridian

Characteristic of Stereographic
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Conformal Correct at pole tangency Shapes: distorted away from pole Area: distorted away from pole GC. Curve concave to pole to 90 N, considered as straight line about 70N 6. Polar Stereographic used only 80N near north and south pole

Map Reading
Determination of the aircraft position by matching natural or built-up features with their corresponding symbol on a chart Parallels and Meridians Prime Meridian is 0 reference for Lat
Pass Greenwich Parallel of Latitude

Equator is 0 reference for Lat

Longitude Meridian

 Latitude and Longitude

Latitude range from 0 at the equator to 90N and 90S at the pole Longitude is measured around the earth both eastward and west ward from Prime meridian, through 180

Geographic Coordinate System

Read intersection of Latitude and Longitude Lat first then Long U-Tapao : Lat 1240N Long 10104E

Grid System
1. GEOREF System (GEO GRAPHIC REFENCE SYSTEM)
Consist of 4 letters and 4 numbers 1. Divided meridian 360 / 15 = 24 spaces Each 24 has letter run from A to Z except I and O, start from south pole 90S and Long 180 Divided Latitude 180 / 15 = 12 spaces Each 12 space has letter run from A to M except I Total 288 spaces (15 15 ) per each 2. Each sqr (15 15 ) divided by 15 = 1 Define letter A to Q except I and O Total 225 spaces (1 1 ) per each 3. Each 1 divided by 60 = second

Reading: Right Up or Long - Lat

M N P Q R S
L K J

U V W X

B C D E

F G H

H G
F E D

C
B A M N P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G H J K L

UG

Q P

O
N M L K J H

G
F E D

C
B A B C D E F G H J K L M N P Q

UGEK3010

Aeronautical Chart
1. Charts for Visual Flight Rules (VFR)

World Aeronautical Charts (WAC) 1:1,000,000 Sectional Charts 1:500,000 VFR Terminal Area Charts 1:250,000
Enroute Chart Standard Instrument Departure (SID) Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR)

2. Charts for Instrument Flight Rules (VFR)

World Aeronautical Chart (WAC)

WACs are used for plotting and pilotage WAC is published by the US.Coast and Geodetic Survey Scale is 1:1,000,000 They are based on
Lambert conformal project 0 to 80N and 80S Modified Polar Stereographic Project from 80N and 80S to the pole


1. (Topographical Symbols) 2. (Aeronautical Symbols)

1. (Topographical Symbols)
1. (Contour Lines)
S.L. 1,000 ft : dark green 1,000 2,000 ft: weak green 2,000 10,000 ft : brown to dark brown

2. (Gradients Tints)

3. (Spot Elevation)

4. (Hachure or Shading)

5. (Drainage or Hydrography)
Blue

6. (Cultural Features)
Chart Legend

7. (Vegetation)