PRESENTATION ON WELDING

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

Definition of welding Types of welding processes & applications Power sources : SMAW, Electrode designation, coating, Orientation. GTAW, shielding gases, Electrodes. Welding procedures,parameters. Types of weld joints,positions,symbols and geometry. Arc blow. Relevant standards and codes. Related processes Welding and gas cutting safety

INTRODUCTION

Welding is the process of joining metals by melting the parts and then using a filler to form a joint.

Welding can be done using different energy sources, from a gas flame or electric arc to a laser or ultrasound
The primary differences between the various welding processes are the methods by which heat is generated to melt the metal.

AWS DEFINITION
A Welding Process is a materials joining process which produces coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable temperatures with or without the application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone and with or without the use of filler material .

DEFINITION OF WELDING

Welding is a process of joining two metals.

To make a joint of two metals , immense heat is required for melting the parts to be joined.

TYPES OF WELDING PROCESSES & APPLICATIONS

ARC WELDING
SMAW GMAW GTAW SAW FCAW PAW

SOLID STATE WELDING

Diffusion welding Explosion welding Friction welding Forge welding Hot pressure welding Roll welding Ultrasonic welding Electron beam welding Electro-slag welding Induction welding Laser beam welding Percussion welding Thermit welding

OTHER PROCESSES

RESISTANCE WELDING
Flash welding Seam welding Spot welding Upset welding

TYPES OF WELDING PROCESSES & APPLICATIONS

Arc welding is done through the use of an electrical current, and can be performed by using inexpensive equipment. Gas Welding is widely used for repair work, especially in anything involving pipes and tubes. Gas welding is common in the jewelry industry, as well as for the welding of plastics and other materials that cannot stand higher temperatures. Resistance welding involves the use of additional sheets of metal to encase the pieces to be welded together. It is the most environmentally-friendly of all methods, but it requires costly equipment that cannot be used in all situations. Energy beam welding, also known as laser beam welding, is one of the most modern techniques used. Laser welding is fast and accurate, but the high equipment cost makes it prohibitive for many industries

GAS WELDING

One of the most popular welding methods uses a gas flame as a source of heat.
In the oxy-fuel gas welding process ,heat is produced by burning acetylene, mixed with oxygen. Gas welding is widely used in maintenance and repair work because of the ease in transporting oxygen and fuel cylinders. Oxy-fuel process is adaptable to brazing, cutting, and heat treating all types of metals

ARC WELDING

Arc welding is a process that uses an electric arc to join the metals being welded. A distinct advantage of arc welding over gas welding is the concentration of heat.
This heat concentration also increases the depth of penetration and speeds up the welding operation;

All arc-welding processes have three things in common:

a heat source, filler metal, and shielding.

The source of heat in arc welding is produced by the arcing of an electrical current between two contacts.

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)

Shielded Metal Arc Welding, also known as Manual Metal Arc Welding, Stick Welding, Covered Electrode Welding or Electric Arc Welding, is the most widely used of the various arc welding processes Shielded Metal Arc Welding is performed by striking an arc between a coated-metal electrode and the base metal. Once the arc has been established, the molten metal from the tip of the electrode flows together with the molten metal from the edges of the base metal to form a sound joint. This process is known as fusion. The coating (flux) from the electrode forms a covering over the weld deposit, shielding it from contamination; therefore the process is called Shielded Metal Arc Welding. This forms the gas and slag to shield the arc and molten weld pool. The flux also provides a method of adding scavengers, deoxidizers, and alloying elements to the weld metal.

ARC WELDING FUNDAMENTALS

In arc welding, the intense heat needed to melt metal is produced by an electric arc

This shows how the coating on a coated (stick) electrode provides a gaseous shield around the arc and a slag covering on the hot weld deposit

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GAS WELDING AND ARC WELDING

SMAW WELDING EQUIPMENT

One reason for the wide acceptance of the SMAW process is the simplicity of the necessary equipment. The equipment consists of the following items.
Welding power source Electrode holder Ground clamp Welding cables and connectors Accessory equipment (chipping hammer, wire brush) Protective equipment (helmet, gloves, etc.)

WELDING POWER SOURCES

STATIC

ROTARY

Transformer

Rectifier

Motor generators

Engine driven

Single phase input , Constant current Type AC

Single/ 3 phase input Constant current/ Voltage type DC HF (High frequency) unit during GTAW.

WELDING POWER SOURCES

Shielded metal arc welding may utilize either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC), but in either case, the power source selected must be of the constant current type. This type of power source will deliver a relatively constant amperage or welding current regardless of arc length variations by the operator The amperage determines the amount of heat at the arc and since it will remain relatively constant, the weld beads produced will be uniform in size and shape. Whether to use an AC, DC, or AC/DC power source depends on the type of welding to be done and the electrodes used. The following factors should be considered:
Electrode Selection - Using a DC power source allows the use of a greater range of electrode types. While most of the electrodes are designed to be used on AC or DC, some will work properly only on DC Metal Thickness - DC power sources may be used for welding both heavy sections and light gauge work. Sheet metal is more easily welded with DC because it is easier to strike and maintain the DC arc at low currents.

While polarity affects the penetration and burn-off rate, the electrode coating also has a strong influence on arc characteristics.

DC current vs AC current

Voltage drop occurs in cable in DC welding. Useful in low current and small electrode diameter. Susceptible to arc blow. Arc is smooth and uniform especially for small dia. Electrode. Better suitable for welding sheet metal. Not suitable for thick sections due to arc blow.

Voltage drop does not occur in AC welding. Not useful in low currents and small electrode diameters In-susceptible to arc blow. Arc is not smooth and uniform especially for small dia. Electrode. Not suitable for welding sheet metal. Suitable for thick sections as arc blow is not serious

WELDING MACHINES

Electrode Holder

The electrode holder connects to the welding cable and conducts the welding current to the electrode. The insulated handle is used to guide the electrode over the weld joint and feed the electrode over the weld joint and feed the electrode into the weld puddle as it is consumed.

Ground Clamp

The ground clamp is used to connect the ground cable to the work piece. It may be connected directly to the work or to the table or fixture upon which the work is positioned.

Welding Cables

The electrode cable and the ground cable are important parts of the welding circuit. They must be very flexible and have a tough heat-resistant insulation. Connections at the electrode holder, the ground clamp, and at the power source lugs must be soldered or well crimped to assure low electrical resistance.

PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

WELDING GLASS

PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

COATED ELECTRODES

Various types of coated electrodes are used in shielded metal arc welding. Electrodes used for welding mild or carbon steels are quite different than those used for welding the low alloys and stainless steels.

FUNCTIONS OF ELECTRODE COATINGS

The functions of the coating on covered electrodes are as follows:

Shielding of the Weld Metal (Cellulose, calcium carbonate. ) Stabilization of the Arc (Potassium titanate / sillicate. ) Alloying Additions to Weld Metal Concentration of the Arc Stream Furnish Slag for Fluxing (Fluorspar, TiO
2

(Ferromanganese )

(rutile) , Feldspar, Silica, Manganese oxide, Iron oxide.)

Characteristics for Welding Position

Control of Weld Metal Soundness

Specific Mechanical Properties to the Weld Metal Insulation of the Core Wire.

STICK WELDING BENEFITS

Equipment used is simple, inexpensive, and portable

Electrode provides and regulates its own flux

Lower sensitivity to wind and drafts than gas shielded welding processes All position capability

COMMON STICK WELDING CONCERNS

Weld discontinuities Undercut Incomplete fusion Porosity Slag Inclusions Cracks

ELECTRODE ORIENTATION AND MANIPULATION IN SMAW

TYPE OF WELD BEADS

UNDER CUT

STICK WELDING PROBLEMS

Arc Blow Arc Stability Excessive spatter Incorrect weld profile Rough surface Porosity

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding is a welding process performed using the heat of an arc established between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the work piece
The primary difference between shielded metal arc welding and gas shielded arc welding is the type of shielding used.

In gas shielded arc welding, both the arc and the molten puddle are covered by a shield of inert gas.
The shield of inert gas prevents atmospheric contamination , thereby producing a better weld.

The processes used in gas shielded arc welding are known as gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), "TIG" (Tungsten Inert Gas) welding and gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
Gas shielded arc welding is extremely useful because it can be used to weld all types of ferrous and nonferrous metals of all thicknesses If filler wire is used, it is added to the weld pool separately.

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)

EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION

Gas tungsten arc welding may be accomplished with relatively simple equipment, or it may require some highly sophisticated components.
Choice of equipment depends upon the type of metal being joined, the position of the weld being made, and the quality of the weld metal necessary for the application. The basic equipment consists of the following: Constant current type power source High frequency unit ( HF unit) Electrode holder (torch) Shielding gas Tungsten electrode Filler wire Water supply when necessary Ground cable Protective equipment Components

POWER SOURCE

Both AC and DC power sources are used in gas tungsten arc welding.
They are the constant current type with a drooping volt-ampere curve. This type of power source produces very slight changes in the arc current when the arc length (voltage) is varied. The choice between an AC or DC welder depends on the type and thickness of the metal to be welded.

Distinct differences exist between AC and DC arc characteristics, and if DC is chosen, the polarity also becomes an important factor.
In GTAW where no flux coating exists, heat distribution between the electrode and the work is controlled solely by the polarity.

HIGH FREQUENCY UNIT (HF)

HF unit is required in GTAW process to initiate arc between electrode and work piece without touching the electrode. This eliminates contamination of tungsten electrode and weld deposit. High frequency voltage at low current is superimposed on the welding current to produce arc. HF unit is switched off after initiation of arc in DC welding. HF unit is continued after initiation of arc in AC welding.

TIG TORCH

Shielding Gases

Argon

Argon + Hydrogen
Argon/Helium

ARGON GAS REGULATOR / FLOW METER

TUNGSTEN ELECTRODES

Electrodes for gas tungsten arc welding are available in diameters from .010" to 1/4" in diameter and standard lengths range from 3" to 24".
The shape of the tip of the electrode is an important factor in gas tungsten arc welding. When welding with DCEN, the tip must be ground to a point. The included angle at which the tip is ground varies with the application, the electrode diameter, and the welding current. Narrow joints require a relatively small included angle. Properly ground electrodes will assure easy arc starting, good arc stability, and proper bead width. When welding with AC, grinding the electrode tip is not necessary.

TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE

ELECTRODES USED IN GTAW

ISO 6848, EN26848 and AWS A5.12 standards.

FILLER METALS/ELECTRODES

The material that you add to fill space during the welding process is known as the filler metal, or material.
Two types of filler metals commonly used in welding are welding rods and welding electrodes. The term welding rod refers to a form of filler metal that does not conduct an electric current during the welding process. The only purpose of a welding rod is to supply filler metal to the joint.

In electric-arc welding, the term electrode refers to the component that conducts the current from the electrode holder to the metal being welded. Electrodes are classified into two groups: consumable and non-consumable. Consumable electrodes not only provide a path for the current but they also supply filler metal to the joint. An example is the electrode used in shielded metal-arc welding. Non-consumable electrodes are only used as a conductor for the electrical current, such as in gas tungsten arc welding.

The filler metal for gas tungsten arc welding is a hand fed consumable welding rod.

FILLER WIRE DESIGNATION-ER70S2

ER- Electrode Wire 70- Tensile strength of deposited weld metal in 1000 PSI S- Solid wire 2- Chemistry of electrode EXAMPLE OF S.S. ELECTRODE ER308 , ER308L , ER309 , ER310, ER316,ER316L

WELDING OF DISIMILAR METALS

C.S To S.S. ---- ER309

ELECTRODE POLARITY

DCEP, DCEN or AC 1. DCEP-DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRODE POSITIVE. Electrode gets more heated.70% heat generated at electrode,30% heat generated at work piece.Shallow,wide penetration.Has oxide cleaning action in Al & Mg.(Reverse polarity) 2.DCEN-DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRODE NEGATIVE. Work piece gets more heated.70% heat generated at work piece,30% heat generated at electrode.Deep,narrow penetration.Does not have oxide cleaning action.(Straight polarity)

3. AC-ALTERNATING CURRENT. Work piece and electrode get equally heated.Used for welding aluminium for breaking the oxide layer during every half cycle.

DCEP, DCEN, AC
DCEP: Shallow penetration.Also called
Reverse polarity. Electrode gets more heated.70% heat generated at electrode,30% heat generated at work piece.Shallow,wide penetration

AC-Medium penetration

AC:Medium penetration. DCEN: Also called straight polarity.

Work piece gets more heated.70% heat generated at work piece,30% heat generated at electrode.Deep, narrow penetration.

DCEN-Deep penetration

PROCEDURE FOR TIG WELDING

GTA welding overhead GTA welding vertical downward

GTA welding in the horizontal position

GTA welding vertical upward

TIG WELDING BENEFITS

Superior quality welds

Welds can be made with or without filler metal

Precise control of welding variables (heat) Free of spatter Low distortion

GTAW WELDING LIMITATIONS

Requires greater welder dexterity than MIG or stick welding

Lower deposition rates More costly for welding thick sections

COMMON GTAW WELDING CONCERNS

Undercutting Tungsten inclusions

Porosity
Weld metal cracks

Heat affected zone cracks

GTAW WELDING PROBLEMS

Erratic arc Oxidized weld deposit Arc wandering Porosity Difficult arc starting

SOLDERING AND BRAZING

Soldering and Brazing are joining processes where parts are joined without melting the base metals. Soldering filler metals melt below 840 F. Brazing filler metals melt above 840 F.

Soldering is commonly used for electrical connection or mechanical joints, but brazing is only used for mechanical joints due to the high temperatures involved

OXY FUEL GAS WELDING SET-UP

OXYGEN AND DA CYLINDER SPECIFICATION

GAS REGULATORS

GAS REGULATORS

GAS CUTTING TORCHES

GAS CUTTING TORCHES

GAS CUTTING BRAZING NOZZLES

CHECK VALVES , FLASH BACK ARRESTORS TORCHES WELDING AND CUTTING TIPS

SOLDERING AND BRAZING BENEFITS

Economical for complex assemblies Joints require little or no finishing Excellent for joining dissimilar metals Little distortion, low residual stresses

Metallurgical bond is formed

Sound electrical component connections

SOLDERING AND BRAZING JOINING PROBLEMS

No wetting Excessive wetting Flux entrapment Lack of fill (voids, porosity) Unsatisfactory surface appearance Base metal erosion

WELD JOINT GEOMETRY,POSITIONS AND WELDING SYMBOLS

As per ANSI/AWS A3.0,Standard

EDGE SHAPES
SQUARE SINGLE BEVEL DOUBLE BEVEL SINGLE-J DOUBLE-J FLANGE EDGE ROUND EDGE

welding terms and definition,

5 BASIC JOINTS
BUTT CORNER TEE LAP EDGE

TYPE OF JOINTS

FILLET JOINT / LAP JOINT

FILLET JOINT / LAP JOINT

EDGE PREPARATION

The edges of the metal to be welded (base metal) are often prepared for welding by cutting, machining, or grinding. This preparation is done to ensure that the base metal is welded through its entire thickness.

Edge preparation is also done on thick metal to open up the joint area. This provides a space large enough to permit welding at the bottom of the joint.

JOINT DESIGN & PREPARATION

Work piece thickness: For thin materials, low heat input and lesser penetration is required. Thick material requires high heat input and deeper penetration.
Depth-width ratio: Large depth-width ratio may cause cracking during solidification if volume of deposited metal is large. Cleanliness of base metal is very important.

Preheating reduces residual stresses, drives off moisture, reduces quench hardening and gives gases and slag (if any) more time to reach the surface of the weld before solidification occurs.

WELD JOINT GEOMETRY,POSITIONS AND WELDING SYMBOLS

As per ANSI/AWS A2.4 Standard symbols for welding,brazing and nondestructive examination

TYPE OF WELDS
Groove welds Fillet welds Plug or slot welds Stud welds

Back or backing welds Surfacing welds Flange welds Spot or projection welds Seam welds

EDGE PREPARATION

PARTS OF JOINTS

The root of a joint is that portion of the joint where the metals are closest to each other. A groove is an opening or space provided between the edges of the metal parts to be welded. The groove face is that surface of a metal part included in the groove The root face, is the portion of the prepared edge of a part to be joined by a groove weld that has not been grooved. The root edge is basically a root face of zero width, The bevel angle is the angle formed between the prepared edge of a member and a plane perpendicular to the surface of the member. The groove angle is the total angle of the groove between the parts to be joined. The groove radius is the radius used to form the shape of a Jor U-groove weld joint. It is used only for special groove joint designs. As a general rule, gas welding requires a larger groove angle than manual metal-arc welding.

The root opening refers to the separation between the parts to be joined at the root of the joint. It is sometimes called the root gap. To determine the bevel angle, groove angle, and root opening for a joint, you must consider the thickness of the weld material, the type of joint to be made, and the welding process to be used. Having an adequate root opening is essential for root penetration. Root penetration refers to the depth that a weld extends into the root of the joint. Joint penetration refers to the minimum depth that a groove (or a flange) weld extends from its face into a joint, exclusive of weld reinforcement. Weld reinforcement is a term used to describe weld metal in excess of the metal necessary to fill a joint. The root opening is usually governed by the diameter or the thickness filler material.This, in turn, depends on the of the base metal and the welding position.

WELD JOINT GEOMETRY,POSITIONS AND WELDING SYMBOLS

JOINT GEOMETRY
ROOT EDGE GROOVE ANGLE

BEVEL ANGLE

GROOVE FACE ROOT FACE

ROOT OPENING

NOMENCLATURE

NOMENCLATURE

NOMENCLATURE

TYPICAL EXAMPLE

TYPICAL EXAMPLE

BASE METAL PROPERTIES

High thermal conductivity of base metal requires more pre-heat and greater heat input. High coefficient of thermal expansion will affect the fit-up, required allowance for distortion and shrinkage and the amount of residual stress produced.

If the difference between solidus and liquidus temperature is high there are more chances of cracking during solidification. Base metals having high hardness and low yield strengths are more difficult to join.

WELD JOINT GEOMETRY,POSITIONS AND WELDING SYMBOLS WELD POSITIONS

1G,1G rotated,1F 2G,2F,2FR 3G,3F 4G,4F 5G,5F 6G,6F

WELDING POSITIONS

ARC BLOW

Bending of the arc away from the intended path due to unbalance in magnetic field is called Arc blow. Arc blow causes excessive weld spatter and weld defects. Arc blow occurs at end of joints, corners , complex structures and near ground clamp locations. Arc blow is mainly caused in magnetic materials & DC current because the induced magnetic fields are in one direction. In AC current, arc blow does not occur because of creation and destruction of magnetic field during each current cycle. Forward arc blow and backward arc blow depending on direction of welding. Methods to avoid arc blow include use of AC current, placement of ground connection as far as possible from the joint to be welded, using shortest possible arc , reduce welding current.

ARC BLOW

WELDING SYMBOLS

WELDING SYMBOL ELEMENTS Reference line Arrow Tail Basic weld symbol Dimensions and other data Supplementary symbols Finish symbols Specification,process or other reference.

WELDING SYMBOLS

WELDING PARAMETERS
Welding Procedure Specification(WPS) Voltage Current Process type Current polarity Weld position Progression Backing Material specification,group no. Base metal thickness Weld joint geometry Welder qualification.

Pipe/plate Filler metal spec.,class,Fno. Gas flux,flow,purity. Root/Filling/Final Pre-heat Interpass temperature Post weld heat treatment. Back purging Travel speed Weld deposition technique.

ESSENTIALS FOR PROPER WELDING PROCEDURES

o

Correct electrode size

Correct current Correct arc length or voltage Correct travel speed Correct electrode angle

ESSENTIAL VARIABLES INVOLVED IN THE PROCEDURE USUALLY INCLUDE

o
o o o o o o

o o

The welding process and its variation The method of applying the process The base metal type, specification, or composition The base metal geometry, normally thickness The base metal need for preheat or post heat The welding position The filler metal and other materials consumed in making the weld The weld joint, that is, the joint type and the weld Electrical or operational parameters involved Welding technique

SELECTING WELDING PROCESS

This involves the type of metal, the thickness of the metal, the position of welding, etc. This also leads into the question of filler metal to be used. This involves matching base metal composition, matching the base metal properties, particularly strength, and providing weld metal that will withstand the service involved. In surfacing, the surface characteristics desired for the finished job depend entirely on the service to which the surface will be exposed. When wear is involved, surfaces can be rebuilt many times without reducing the strength of the part and the service life will be greatly extended. The repair procedure should be very similar to a procedure developed for welding a critical part. It should include the process and filler metal and the technique to be used in making welds.

WELDING PROCEDURE

" The AWS definition for a welding procedure is "the detailed methods and practices including all joint welding procedures involved in the production of a weldment . The joint welding procedure mentioned includes "the materials, detailed methods and practices employed in the welding of a particular joint." This is accomplished by writing a procedure which is simply a "manner of doing" or "the detailed elements (with prescribed values or range of values) of a process or method used to produce a specific result

COMMONLY USED MATERIALS

Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Titanium Nickel and its alloys Low alloy steel Copper , Brass, Bronze

ALLOY SELECTION

Base metal and filler metal alloy selection is critical to producing good quality welds. Proper alloy selection can reduce numerous welding problems Base metal and filler metal alloy selection is critical to producing good quality welds.

Proper alloy selection can reduce numerous welding problems

BENEFITS FROM PROPER ALLOY SELECTION

Increase weld quality and yield Proper weld joint strength Good corrosion and oxidation resistance Reduction of weld and HAZ cracking Eliminate reheat cracking Eliminate stress corrosion cracking Eliminate lamellar tearing Improved weldability Optimize dissimilar metal joints

WELDING STEEL ALLOY

Steel Alloys can be divided into five groups :

Carbon Steels High Strength Low Alloy Steels Quenched and Tempered Steels

Heat Treatable Low Alloy Steels

Chromium-Molybdenum Steels

RELEVANT CODES,STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS

CODES Enforced by law,hence is mandatory. AWS CODES AWS D1.1-Structural welding code-Steel AWS D1.2-Structural welding code-Aluminum. AWS D1.3-Structural welding code-Sheet steel. AWS D1.4-Structural welding code-Reinforcing steel. AWS D1.5-Bridge welding code AWS D9.1-Sheet metal welding code. ASME CODES ASME Sec.II,part C-Specification for welding rods,electrodes and filler metals. ASME Sec.IX-Welding and brazing qualifications. ASME Sec.VIII-Rules for construction of pressure vessels.

RELEVANT CODES,STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS

STANDARDS
Something established for use as a rule or basis of comparison in measuring or judging capacity,quantity,content,extent,value,quality etc.

Non-mandatory.
API 1104-Standard for welding pipelines and related facilities. ASTM-American society for testing and materials.

SPECIFICATIONS
A detailed description of the parts of a whole;statement or enumeration of particulars, as to actual or required size,quality,performance,terms etc.

e.g AWS A5.1-Requirements for carbon steel covered electrodes for SMAW.

RELEVANT CODES,STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS

D14.1-Specification for welding industrial and mill cranes. D14.2-Specification for metal cutting machine tool weldments D14.3-Specification for welding earthmoving and construction equipment. D14.4-Classification and application of welded joints for machinery and equipment. D14.5-Specification for welding presses and press components. D14.6-Specification for rotating elements of equipment.

DISTORTION AND DISTORTION CONTROL

OXY FUEL GAS CUTTING

Oxy Fuel Gas Cutting is used to sever metals by means of the chemical reaction of oxygen with the base metal at elevated temperatures. The necessary temperature is maintained by means of gas flames obtained from the combustion of a fuel gas and oxygen.

PLASMA ARC CUTTING

Plasma Arc Cutting is an arc cutting process with a higher arc voltage which severs metal by melting a localized area with a constricted arc and removing the molten material with a highvelocity jet of hot ionized gas. Heat input at the plasma arc is so high that the metal is melted and a hole is formed. The plasma gas at a high velocity helps cut through the metal. Plasma cutting is ideal for gouging and for piercing.

For some operations air is used as the plasma gas. A higher arc voltage is normally used

CARBON STEEL (ASME P-1)

the most commonly incorporated metal. Carbon steel is used to produce structural steel, steel flanges, forgings (SA 105), piping (SA53 and SA106), boiler tubes (SA178 and SA192), bars, bolting and lower-temperature, and pressure-vessel plating

STAINLESS STEEL (ASME P-8)

chromium and chromium nickel alloy are two comparable metals that are very resistant to high temperatures and corrosion. Typically, these composites are used to fabricate process-piping systems, storage tanks and pressure vessels.

HASTELLOY (ASME P-44, P-45)

a cobalt-based alloy that is highly resistant to corrosion and excessive heat. It is often the material of choice when fabricating products associated with acetic acids, acid etching, cellophane manufacturing, chlorinating systems, electromagnetizing rolls, expansion bellows, flue gas scrubbers, geothermal wells, pesticide production, pickling systems, phosphoric acid production, SO2 cooling towers, incineration scrubber systems, sulforation systems and HF furnace scrubbers.

TITANIUM (ASME P-51, P-53)

a lightweight metal with a relatively high tensile strength. Due to the fact that titanium is very sensitive to contamination and embrittlement , it is often produced in alloy form and has associated, determined grades of relation. For example: grades 1, 2 and 3 are unalloyed titanium, whereas grade 7 has a slight palladium contribution. Since titanium is fragile, cleanliness and exactness are pertinent to its employment. Any weld performed on this metal may only be implemented with a purge-trailing and shielding gas. Most commonly, argon gas is utilized and may only be substituted with an argon-helium mixture.

CHROME MOLYBDENUM

(ASME P4-P5A)

a low-carbon, alloy steel implemented in high-temperature service. Grade 11 is preferred with moderate to high temperature, general steam applications. For higher temperatures, grade 22 is used. The percentage of manganese ranges from 30-60%. The nominal tensile strength is 60KS.

STELLITE
is a cobalt-based alloy welded to internal and external surfaces to provide corrosion-resistant alloy surfacing and erosion-resistant hard facing.

BRONZE ALLOYS
BRONZE ALLOYS (Aluminum bronze, brass, nickel aluminum bronze, manganese bronze and nickel-manganese bronze) are used primarily to repair condensers, pump casings, valve bodies, and various other components

ALUMINUM (ASME P-21-25)

ALUMINUM (ASME P-21-25) may be supplied in many forms. The largest attribute of aluminum is that it provides a lightweight material that has a moderate tensile strength, good heat-transfer, corrosion-resistant properties, and is an acceptable electrical conductor. Often aluminum is found in alloys that include manganese, magnesium and titanium, which increase their strength and diversify their applicable utility

COPPER ALLOYS
COPPER ALLOYS are a non-ferrous metal group that has excellent ductile, thermal, electrical and corrosion-resistant properties. Combining nickel with copper creates an alloy that has a superior heat and corrosion resistance. Therefore, copper nickel (ASME P34) is more often used to make heat exchangers and condenser tubing, as well as, chemical equipment.

NICKEL COPPER (MONEL)

NICKEL COPPER (MONEL) is a nickel alloy (ASME P-43, P-45). Inconel is one such alloy. These metals provide good corrosion resistance combined with high strength at increased temperatures. More commonly, nickel copper is a material of choice when fabricating pump shafts, valves, springs, seamless tubes and pipes, as well as, other applications necessitating these property characteristics.

Safety in welding

Welding, cutting, and brazing are exceptionally dangerous. Compressed gases are often used to create an extremely hot flame. Different welding techniques can cause other hazards. The welder can be injured or cause damage to the work area in numerous ways including fire, explosion, gas, and fume hazards. Good work practices must be followed in all welding, cutting, and brazing techniques to prevent injuries, fires, and explosions.

Before starting actual arc welding the student should be fully aware of the dangers involved. The high temperature arc and hot metal can cause severe burns. In addition the electric arc itself provides an additional safety hazard.

The electric arc emits large amounts of ultra violet and infra-red rays.

Both types of rays are invisible to the naked eye just as the same type of rays emitted by the sun are invisible. However they both have the identical properties of causing sunburn on the human skin, except that the arc burns much more rapidly and deeply.
Since these rays are produced very close to the operator they can cause very severe burns to the eyes in a short exposure time.

When welding with the electric arc, there is added danger that the small globules or droplets of molten metal may leave the arc and fly in all directions. These so called sparks range in temperature from 2000 to 3000 Fahrenheit and in size from very small to as large as inch. They present a personal burn hazard plus a fire hazard if they fall in inflammable material.

The welding operator needs to protect himself, by means of a helmet and other protective devices from the harmful rays of the arc and flying sparks. The filter plates in the welding helmet will remove 99% of the harmful rays if the proper shade lens is used.

Other dangers associated with electric arc welding are:

a. Electric shock-which may be caused by standing in damp areas, welding without gloves, bare cables, uninsulated holder, etc. b. Harmful fumes given off in welding process especially when welding on galvanized or other coated materials.

The operator should be familiar with all safety precautions and take care to adequately protect himself at all times against any hazards associated with arc welding by wearing protective clothing and equipment, working in dry conditions, providing adequate ventilation and in general using good common sense.

1. Make sure machine is properly grounded. 2. Never permit live parts of the electric welder to touch bare skin or wet clothing. 3. Do not cool electrode holders by emersion in water. 4. Turn off power supply when welder is not in use. 5. Do not stand on wet areas while welding. 6. Wear leather gloves.

7. Make sure cable are covered and in good condition.

8. Make certain that electrode holders are properly insulated.

1. Protect eyes and face from flying particles of slag by use of safety glasses or face shield.

2. Wear adequate protective clothing.

3. Always wear leather gloves. 4. Wear high top shoes. 5. Keep collar, shirt pockets, etc buttoned. 6. Do not touch the electrode or metal where welding has taken place. 7. Handle hot metal with pliers or tongs. 8. Keep electrode stubs properly disposed of.

1. Use a welding helmet with the correct shade lens in good condition.

2. Wear suitable clothingdo not leave bare skin exposed to the rays of the arc.
3. Do not strike the arc without covering the face and eyes. Give warning to others before striking the arc. 4. Avoid looking directly at the arc where others are welding without proper eye protection.

1. Work only in well-ventilated areas.

2. Use great care when working on metals covered with lead or zinc. 3. If working in a confined area use respirator or other approved breathing devices.

1. Keep shop clean in areas where welding is to be done. 2. Do not weld near combustible materials of any kind. 3. Never weld on covered containers which may have held combustible materials without first taking adequate safety precautions. For example, fill them with water, steam clean or fill with an inert gas.

1. Be familiar with location and types of fire extinguishers. 2. Report any unsafe conditions that might start a fire. 3. Do not weld near inflammable materials. 4. Do not weld on containers that have held inflammable materials. 5. Do not weld near electrical fittings or lines.

Compressed Gases

Many welding and cutting operations require the use of compressed gases. To understand these hazards, we must understand that compressed gases are stores of potential energy. It takes energy to compress and confine the gas. That energy is stored until purposely released to perform useful work or until accidentally released by container failure or other causes.

Compressed Gases

Some compressed gases, acetylene for example, have high flammability characteristics. Flammable compressed gases, therefore, have additional stored energy besides simple compression-release energy. Other compressed gases, such as nitrogen, have simple asphyxiating properties. Some compressed gases, such as oxygen, can augment or compound fire hazards.

Compressed Gases

Compressed gases are regulated by many standards. Two primary standards are: 29 CFR 1910 Subpart Q Welding, Cutting, and Brazing covers the handling, storage, and use of compressed gases, such as oxygenfuel gas, when they are consumed in the welding process. 29 CFR 1910 Subpart H Hazardous Materials, 1910.101 1910.105 covers the general requirements for the handling, storage, and use of compressed gases other than those consumed in the welding process

General Requirements

In addition to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations found in Subparts Q and H of 29 CFR 1910 there are other applicable regulations and information. These include the Department of Transportation (DOT) regulations, and the Compressed Gas Association (CGA) pamphlets.

These sources provide the requirements for the general category of compressed gases and certain specific compressed gases.

General Requirements

An important aspect of these regulations is the safety of compressed gas storage containers. Specific requirements are made of employers for the inspection of the compressed gas cylinders. Visual inspections are required to ensure that the cylinders are safe. The next page will go into more detail regarding visual examinations of compressed gas storage containers and the safety of these containers.

The American Welding Society (AWS) was founded in 1919 as a multifaceted, nonprofit organization with a goal to advance the science, technology and application of welding and related joining disciplines