1

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY:

FLUID MECHANICS

DURATION THEME
ASSIGNMENT/
TEST/PROJECT
COMPLETION
DATE*
Week 1-2 Fluid properties (Learning
Outcome 1)
-Definition of fluid
-Introductory dimensional
analysis
-Measures of fluid mass
and weight
-Ideal gas law
-Viscosity
-Compressibility of fluids
-Vapour pressure
-Surface tension
-Solving problems
Assignment I
Test I
06/08/2010
10/09/2010
2
Week 3-4 Fluid statics (Learning
Outcomes 2 )
- Pressure at a point
- Basic equation for
pressure field
- Pressure variation in a
fluid at rest
- Measurement of
pressure
- Manometry
- Hydrostatic force on a
plane surface
- Solving problems

Assignment I
Test I
06/08/2010
10/09/2010
3
Week 5- 6 Flow of fluids(Learning
Outcomes 3 )
- Conservation of
mass
- Conservation of
energy
- Conservation of
momentum
Assignment
II
Test I
03/09/2010
10/09/2010
Week 7-8
Flow in pipes(Learning
Outcomes 4 )
- General
characteristics of
pipe flow
- Fully developed
laminar flow
- Fully developed
turbulent
- Dimensional analysis
of pipe flow


Assignment
III
Test II
01/10/2010
22/10/2010

4
Week 9-10 Flow measurement
(Learning Outcomes 5 )
- Introduction
- Rotameter
- Venturi meter
- Pitot tube
- Orifice meter
- Vortex flow meter
Assignment III
Test II
01/10/2010
22/10/2010
5
Week 11-15 Centrifugal pumps
(Learning Outcomes 6 )
- Types of pumps
- Centrifugal pump theory
- Ideal pump
- Actual pump
performance
- Power transmission
- Types of impellers
- Pump cavitation
- Factors that affect pump
capacity
- Multistage centrifugal
pumps
- Leakproof centrifugal
pumps
- Pump priming
- Solving problems
Assignment IV
Test III
15/10/2010
22/10/2010
6
Course objectives
By the end of this module students should be able to:
1. Have a clear understanding of the basic properties of fluid
2. Develop a clear understanding of pressure and its
variation throughout a fluid
3. Perform mathematical calculations for fluid at rest

4. Apply the principles of conservation of mass, momentum and
energy to fluid flow
5. Apply the basic principles of fluid flow to flow of viscous,
incompressible fluids in pipes
6. Perform flow measurements calculations
7. Design centrifugal pumps
Note: If time allows, we will do flow of compressible fluids
7
Reference books

Coulson and Richardsons Chemical Engineering Vol. 1.
Butterworth Heinemann
B.R. Munson. Fundamentals of Fluid mechanics.
Wiley International Edition
James O. Wilke. Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers
Assessments
Semester Tests: 2, total 50%
Assignments: 50%
Examination
40% semester mark is required for
admission
8
Chapter One: Properties of fluid
F
F
Area
Deformed
position
original
position T
1.1 What is a fluid? Consider
From engineering/scientific point of view, a fluid is defined as a
substance that deforms continuously (flow) when acted on by a
shearing stress of any magnitude. A shearing stress (force per
unit area) is created whenever a tangential force acts on a
surface.
Fluids: Water, air, petrol, oil
9
1.2 Dimensions, Dimensional homogeneity and
units
Description of fluid characteristics
1. Qualitatively: Length, time, mass, temperature
2. Quantitatively; Numerical value of 1 above


Primary quantities (for qualitative description) Length, L
Mass, M
Time, T
Temperature,u
Secondary quantities: Area = L
2
,
velocity = LT
-1
density = ML
-3

10
Dimensional homogeneity
Now consider an object initially moving at velocity V
o
. A
constant acceleration force is applied. Determine the
variation of velocity and distance with time.
V
o

V
t

Distance,
S
o
o t
t t
V V
dt
dV
a

= =
t
V V
a
o t

=
Expression for
acceleration
Since t
o
=0
V
t
= V
o
+ at
LT
-1
(LHS) = LT
-1
(RHS1) + LT
-1
(RHS 2)
Dimensionally homogeneous
dt
dS
V =
at V
dt
ds
o
+ =
dt at V dS
o
) ( + =
} }
2
2
at
t V S
o
+ =
L (LHS) = (LT
-1
)(T) (RHS1) + (LT
-2
)(T
2
) (RHS 2)
Dimensionally homogeneous
11
Table 1.1 Dimensions associated with common physical quantities

Acceleration LT
-2
Length L
Area L
2
Mass M
Density ML
-3
Time T
Force MLT
-2
Temperature u
Power ML
2
T
-3
Heat ML
2
T
-2
Pressure ML
-1
T
-2
Volume L
3
Work ML
2
T
-2
specific heat L
2
T
-2
u
-1
Example 1.1

A commonly used equation for determining the volume rate flow,
Q, of a liquid through an orifice located inside a tank is
gh A Q 2 61 . 0 =
12
Where A is the area of the orifice, g is the acceleration due to
gravity and h is the height of the liquid above the orifice.
Investigate the dimensional homogeneity of this formula

g
h
The dimensions of Q = L
3
T
-1
A = L
2

g = LT
-2

h = L
13

L
3
T
-1
= (0.61) (L
2
) (\2)(LT
-2
)
1/2
(L)
1/2

L
3
T
-1
= (0.61) (\2)( L
3
T
-1
)
These terms, when substituted into the equation, yield the
dimensional form
From the above result, it is clear that the equation is
dimensionally homogeneous i.e. both sides contain L
3
T
-1

Example 1.2
The force, P, that is exerted on a spherical particle moving
slowly through a liquid is given by the equation
P = 3tDV
Where is the fluid viscosity ( FL
-2
T), D is the particle
diameter, and V is the particle velocity. What are the
dimensions of the constant, 3t? Would you classify this
equation as a general homogeneous equation? (i.e. valid in
any system of units)
14
Solution

Dimensional homogeneity requires that

LHS = RHS

F = 3t (FL
-2
T)(L)(LT
-1
)

3t = F/ (FL
-2
T)(L)(LT
-1
) = F/F

3t has no units.

Since the constant 3t has no dimensions and the equation is dimensionally
homogeneous, the equation can be classified as general homogeneous equation.


1.3 Measures of fluid mass and weight
1.3.1 Density
Density, , is defined as mass per unit volume. It is used to characterize
the mass of a fluid system. For liquids, it shos some slight variation with
temperature (see fig 1.2)
15
950
960
970
980
990
1000
0 20 40 60 80 100
Temperature,
o
C
D
e
n
s
i
t
y
,

k
g
/
m
3
Fig.1.2 Density of water as a function of temperature.
Highest density is observed at 4
o
C
1.3.2 Specific weight
The specific weight of a fluid, designated by (N/m3) is
defined as the weight per unit volume and therefore
=g
16
1.3.2 Specific gravity
The specific gravity of a fluid, designated as SG, is defined as the ratio of the density of
the fluid to the density of water at some specified temperature (usually 4
o
C). In equation
form this is expressed as

SG = /
H2O @ 4
o
C

Since SG is a ratio of densities, the value does not depend on the system of units.

1.3.2 Specific weight
The specific weight of a fluid, designated by (N/m
3
) is defined as the weight per unit
volume and therefore
=g. For water

= 1000 (kg/ m3) * 9.8 (m
2
/s) = 9.80 kN/m
3
17
1.4 Ideal gas law
Gases are highly compressible as compared to the liquids. We recall the famous ideal
gas equation

PV =n RT 1.4

This gives

P = (n/V) RT to express the number of moles in terms of mass, we multiply n by
M
w
(molar mass. Therefore we have:

P M
w
= (nM
w
/V) RT, But nM
w
/V is thus

P M
w
= RT 1.5
or
= P. M
w
/ RT 1.6
18
Fluid
Force, F
Moving
plate
Fixed plate
Force
h
Moving plate, u=V
y
V
h
y
u =
Velocity
profile
1.5 Viscosity
The properties of density and specific weight discussed in
section 1.3 are measures of heaviness of a fluid. Another
very important property of a fluid is its viscosity. The viscosity
of a fluid is a measure of resistance to flow under applied
shear stress ,t, as show in Fig. 1.3.

Consider
Fig. 1.3 (a) Fluid in shear between (b) The ensuing linear velocity profile
parallel plates
19
Let h be the separation distance between the plate, F be
the applied force

Under these circumstances, the velocity u of the fluid to
the right is found experimentally to vary linearly from
zero at the lower plate (y=0) to V itself at the upper plate
(see fig. b), corresponding to no-slip conditions (an
experimental observation that the fluid sticks to the
solid boundaries) at each plate.
At any intermediate distance y from the lower plate, the
velocity u is given by:


Since u depends on y we can write:

V
h
y
u =
Eq. 1.7
h
V
dy
du
=
20
Newtonian fluids
dy
du
o t
Experimentally determined
h
V
dy
du
t = =
Introducing proportionality
constant

v =
Kinematic viscosity
21
Rate of shear strain,
dy
du

1
oil
H
2
O, 15
o
C
H
2
O, 37
o
C
Air, 15
o
C
Fig. 1.4 Linear variation of shearing stress with
rate of shearing strain for common fluids
22
Rate of shear strain
S
h
e
a
r
i
n
g

s
t
r
e
s
s

Fig. 1.5 Shear stress vs shear strain for Newtonian
and Non-Newtonian fluids
23
Variation of viscosity of liquid with temperature
) ln exp( ln ln T b a or T b a + = + =
) exp(
T
B
D =
Andrade Equation
Variation of viscosity of gas with temperature
n
o
o
T
T
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
S T
CT
+
=
2
3

or
Sutherland
Equation
24
Hydrogen
Air
Water
Oil
Glycerin
Temperature
D
y
n
a
m
i
c

v
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y

Fig. 1.6 Dynamic viscosity of some common fluids as a
function of temperature.
25
Example 1.3

A dimensional combination of variables that is important in the
study of viscous flow through pipes is called Reynolds number,
N
Re
, defined as VD/, where is the fluid density, V the mean
fluid velocity, D the pipe diameter and the fluid viscosity. A
Newtonian fluid having viscosity of 0.38 N.s/m
2
and specific
gravity of 0.91 flow through a 25-mm-diametre pipe with a
velocity of 2.6 m/s. Determine the value of N
Re
. Show how N
Re
,
varies with temperature.
26
Solution
( )( )( )
2
3 3
Re
/ . 38 . 0
10 25 / 6 . 2 / 1000 91 . 0
m s N
m x s m m kg x VD
N

= =

= 156 (kg.m.s
-2
)/N

But 1 N= 1 kg.m.s
-2


Therefore N
Re
= 156

) ln exp( ) / exp(
Re Re
T b a
VD
N or
T B D
VD
N
+
= =

For variation of N
Re
with temperature
27
Example 1.4
The velocity distribution for flow of a Newtonian fluid (see figure)
between two wide, parallel plates is given by the equation:
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
2
3
h
y
V u
Where V is the mean velocity. The fluid has a viscosity of 0.04
lb.s/ft
2
. When V=2 ft/s and h=0.2 in. Determine: (a) the shearing
stress acting on the bottom wall, and (b) the shearing stress
acting on a plane parallel to the walls and passing through the
centreline (mid plane)
u
y
h
h
u
y
h
h
28
Solution
dy
du
t =
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
2
3
h
y
V u
Given
expression
Newtonian fluid
(

=
2
2
0
2
3
h
y
V
dy
du
2
2
3
h
Vy
=
Taking first derivative
( )
h
V
h
h
V
dy
du 3 3
2
= =
Now along the bottom wall, y= -h

( )( )( )
( )( ) . 12 / 1 . 2 . 0
/ 2 3 / . 04 . 0 3
2
in ft in
s ft ft s lb
h
V
wall
bottom
= = t
Calculation of shearing
stress at the bottom
( ) 0 0
3
2
= =
h
V
dy
du
0
3
= =
h
V
plane mid
t
Calculation of shearing
stress mid plane
29
1.6 Compressibility of fluids
(a) Bulk modulus: When pressure is
applied to a fluid, its volume (also density)
changes i.e. it is compressed. Bulk
modulus is a property that is used to
characterise compressibility. It is defined
mathematically

=
/ d
dp
E
v
dp is the differential pressure
needed to create a differential
change in volume d of a
volume .
30
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

= =

d
d
d
dp
m
d
m
dp
m m d
dp
E
v
2 2
/
) (
) / /( ) / (
Noting that = m/ , then

/ d
d
E
v
=

-Liquids are generally incompressible
i.e E
v
>>large
-Gases are compressible.
(b) Compression and Expansion of gases
t cons
P
tan =

When gases expand/compress

at constant temperature
31
t cons
d
dP
tan =

Taking derivative

v
E
d
dP
=
But, we know
From section 1.6a

P
t cons
E
v
= = tan
E
v
= P
Isothermal
process
t cons
P
k
tan =

Isentropic process:
Frictionless and no heat
exchange with surrounding
v
p
C
C
k =
32
d k const dp
k 1
.) (

=
Taking derivative
1
.) (

=
k
k const
d
dp

kP
k
P
k
k
= =
1

kP E
d
dp
v
= =
kP E
v
= (isentropic process)
33
k
f
f
k
i
i
P
P

=
k
i
f
i f
P P
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

Example:
A cubic foot of He at an absolute pressure of 14.7 psi is
compressed isentropically to 0.5 ft
3
. What is the final pressure?

Solution:
For isentropic compression, we have;

We know that for fixed mass, a decrease of volume by a factor
of 0.5 results in an increase in density by a factor of 2.
Therefore;
66 . 1
1
2
7 . 14
|
.
|

\
|
=
f
P
Pf = 46.5 psi.
k=1.66
34
1.7 Surface tension
What happens when steel needle is gently placed on
water? It floats??
Why do small droplets of mercury form into spheres
when placed on a smooth surface? - because the
cohesive forces in the surface tend to hold all the
molecules together in a compact shape
Walking on water: Small insects such as the water
strider can walk on water because their weight is not
enough to penetrate the surface
Don't touch the tent!
Common tent materials are somewhat rainproof in that
the surface tension of water will bridge the pores in the
finely woven material. But if you touch the tent material
with your finger, you break the surface tension and the
rain will drip through.

35
Soaps and detergents
help the cleaning of clothes by lowering the surface
tension of the water so that it more readily soaks into
pores and soiled areas.
Washing with cold water
The major reason for using hot water for washing is that
its surface tension is lower and it is a better wetting
agent. But if the detergent lowers the surface tension,
the heating may be unneccessary
Define Surface tension (o = the intensity of the molecular
attraction per unit length along any line in the surface) as the
tendency of a liquid to behave like a stretched elastic membrane.
Remember that this conceptual analogy is only useful to explain
the phenomenon described above, say, why steel needle floats on
water
36
Question:
How will the shape of droplets of liquid placed gently on a
surface vary with the size of the droplet?

Answer
spherical
oval
spherical
oval
For the small droplets such as the
first two on the left hand side, the
droplets adapt a shape that is almost
perfectly spherical, because in this
configuration, there is the least
surface area for a given volume
For larger droplets, the shape becomes somewhat flatter
because of the increasingly important gravitational effects,
which is roughly proportional to r
3
, where r is the
approximate droplet radius, whereas the surface area is
proportional to only r
2

37
Capillary action
hh
rise of column for a liquid
that wets the surface
such as water
depression of column for
nonwetting liquid such as
mercury.
Adhesion>> cohesion
Adhesion<<cohesion
38
Free body diagram: Force balance
t r
2
h
2t ro
t r
2
h
2t ro
h
To determine h, we perform force
balance. At equilibrium the weight of
water in the column must balance the
surface tension i.e.
) cos ( 2
2
u o t t r h r =
Making h the subject
r
h

u o cos 2
=
39
Example
Pressures are sometimes determined by measuring the height of a
column of liquid in a vertical tube. What diameter of clean glass tubing
is required so that the rise of water at 200
o
C in a tube due to capillary
action is less than 1.00 mm?
r
h

u o cos 2
=
h
r

u o cos 2
=
Solution
so that
Property of water at 20
o
C is; o= 0.0728 N/m,
= 9.789 kN/m
3

0149 . 0
10 * 0 . 1 * 10 * 789 . 9
0 cos * 0728 . 0 * 2
3 3
= =

r
m
Thus the minimum diameter d (=2r) = 0.0298 m = 29.8 mm.
40
Chapter 2: Fluid Statics
Define Pressure as the normal force per unit area at a
given point acting on a given plane within the fluid mass of
interest
Pascals Law: The pressure at a point in a static fluid is
equal in all directions: To prove this, lets consider a fluid
element in the form of a triangular wedge
2.1 Pressure at a Point
Z
Y
X
2
z y x c c c

y x P
z
c c
x c
u
y c
s x P
s
c c
u
z x P
z
c c
s c
41
Assumptions
Fluid at rest
Zero shearing
Fluid moves as rigid body: no relative motion between
adjacent elements
Applying Newtons second Law: F=ma
Y-direction
Sum of forces in the y direction= (pressure)*(small area normal
to pressure)- (force opposing the pressure in the y direction)=
(volume of the element)*(density of the fluid)*acceleration)
y s y y
a
z y x
s x P z x P F
2
sin
c c c
= c c c c =

u
42
Z-direction
Sum of forces in the z direction= (pressure)*(small area
normal to pressure)- (force opposing the pressure in the z
direction) (weight of the element) = (volume of the
element)*(density of the fluid)*acceleration)

z s z z
a
z y x z y x
s x P y x P F
2 2
cos
c c c
=
c c c
c c c c =

u
u cos s y c = c
u sin s z c = c
It can easily be shown that
Therefore
2
y
a P P
y s y
c
=
2
) (
z
a P P
z s z
c
+ =
Y-direction
Z-direction
43
Taking limits
0 , 0 , 0 c c c x z y
P
y
= P
s
and

P
z
= P
s

Example
A hydraulic jack consists of an assembly of given dimensions. A
load of 20 kN (P2) must be supported by the jack. What should
be the force applied?
Hydraulic jacks use the
principle of transmission of
pressure.
44
Area A2 is given by
2
2
001963 . 0
5
) 05 . 0 (
2 m A = = t
Pressure P2 is the weight to be lifted per unit area
2
/ 10187838
001963 . 0
1000 * 20
2 m N P = =
Pressure P2 must balance P1 i.e. transmission of pressure
N applied Force 1800
4
) 015 . 0 (
* * 10187838
2
= = t
45
Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest
Hydrostatic law
The rate of increase of pressure in the vertically downward
direction, at a point in a static fluid, must equal the local
specific weight of the fluid.
Proof of the above statements
Sum of forces acting
upwards due to pressure
( ) a P a P a P P - c = - - c +
Force acting downwards
due to weight
) ( a z g weight - c - - =
z
z
P
P c
c
c
+
P
z c
Surface
z
o
46
For equilibrium upward force equals downward force
) ( a z g a P - c - - = - c
z g P c = c
g
z
P
=
c
c
For liquids or gases at rest
the pressure gradient in the
vertical direction
= =
c
c
g
z
P
Incompressible fluids
g
z
P
=
c
c
With incompressible fluids
(liquids), density is constant
z g P c = c
} }

gz P P
o
=
47
o
P gz P + =
Point O being the surface
of water and therefore P
o

is atmospheric pressure
gz P =
If we measure pressure
relative to atmospheric
pressure (gauge
pressure, then P
o
~0
Example
Calculate the pressure (gauge) for a column of
1. 0.2 m water
2. 0.2 gasoline (specific gravity=0.75)
3. 0.2m Mercury (specific gravity=13.6)
48
Solution
1. gz = 1000*9.81*0.2 = 1962 N/m
2
2. gz = 0.75*1000*9.81*0.2 = 1472 N/m
2
3. gz = 13.6*1000*9.81*0.2 = 26683 N/m
2
Compressible Fluids
RT P =
Recall, Gas law eq. R J/kgK
RT
P
=
g
RT
P
z
P
* =
c
c
} }
c =
c
2
1
2
1
z
z
P
P
z
RT
g
P
P
Integrating
( )
1 2
1
2
ln z z
RT
g
P
P
=
Isothermal,
T=const.
49
( )
(

=
RT
z z g
P P
1 2
1 2
exp
Pressure variation with z in the
vertical downward direction
( )
(

=
RT
z z g
P P
1 2
1 2
exp
Pressure variation with z in the
vertical upward direction
Manometry: Measurement of Pressure
Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure
50
1. Barometer
-Used for measuring atmospheric
pressure
-Pressure balance
h
P
atm
= h + P
vapor
(see vacuum)
-It implies that the column of mercury will
rise till the force due to atm. pressure
balances the weight in the column plus the
force due to the vapor pressure (develops
in the space above the column)
-Since P
vapor
<< small, P
atm.
~ h
51
2. Piezometer Tube Manometer
-The simplest manometer is a tube, open at the top, which is attached to
the top of a vessel containing liquid at a pressure (higher than
atmospheric) to be measured. An example can be seen in the figure
below.
-As the tube is open to the atmosphere the pressure measured is relative
to atmospheric so is gauge pressure.

This method can only be used for liquids (i.e. not for gases) and only
when the liquid height is convenient to measure. It must not be too small
or too large and pressure changes must be detectable.
Pressure at A= Pressure due to column of liquid above A
P
A
= h
1
+ P
atm
(assumed zero for gauge
pressure.)

Pressure at B= Pressure due to column of liquid above b
PA = h
2
+ P
atm
(assumed zero for gauge pressure.)

52
3. U- Tube Manometer
Using a "U"-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be measured with
the same instrument. The "U" is connected as in the figure below and filled with a fluid
called the manometric fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being measured should have a
mass density less than that of the manometric fluid and the two fluids should not be able
to mix readily - that is, they must be immiscible.
-Pressure in a continuous static
fluid is the same at any horizontal
level so
-For the left hand arm
53
For the right hand arm
As we are measuring gauge pressure we can subtract P
atm
giving
If the fluid being measured is a gas, the density will probably be very low in
comparison to the density of the manometric fluid. In this case the term gh
1

can be neglected, and the gauge pressure give by
54
4. Differential U-Tube Manometer
-If the "U"-tube manometer is connected to a pressurized vessel at two points
the pressure difference between these two points can be measured
I-f the manometer is arranged as
in the figure , then
D
Giving the pressure difference
if the fluid whose pressure difference
is being measured is a gas;
man
>>, thus
55
5. Tilted (or inclined) Manometer
-If the pressure to be measured is very small then tilting the arm provides a
convenient way of obtaining a larger (more easily read) movement of the
manometer. The above arrangement with a tilted arm is shown in the figure
below
The pressure difference is still
given by the height change of
the manometric fluid but by
placing the scale along the line
of the tilted arm and taking this
reading large movements will
be observed. The pressure
difference is then given by


Where x is the reading along the scale
above the datum
-The sensitivity to pressure change can be increased further by a
greater inclination of the manometer arm, alternatively the density of the
manometric fluid may be changed
56
6. Choice Of Manometer
Care must be taken when attaching the manometer to vessel, no burrs must be present
around this joint. Burrs would alter the flow causing local pressure variations to affect the
measurement.

Some disadvantages of manometers:
Slow response - only really useful for very slowly varying pressures - no use at all for
fluctuating pressures;
For the "U" tube manometer two measurements must be taken simultaneously to get
the h value. This may be avoided by using a tube with a much larger cross-sectional
area on one side of the manometer than the other;
It is often difficult to measure small variations in pressure - a different manometric fluid
may be required - alternatively a sloping manometer may be employed; It cannot be
used for very large pressures unless several manometers are connected in series;
For very accurate work the temperature and relationship between temperature and r
must be known;

Some advantages of manometers:
They are very simple.
No calibration is required - the pressure can be calculated from first principles

57
Example of a Piezometer
What is the maximum gauge pressure of water that can be
measured by a Piezometer of height 1.5m? And if the liquid
had a relative density of 8.5 what would the maximum
measurable gauge pressure
gauge pressure p = gh
=
water
x relative density


The maximum measurable pressure is when the tube is completely full
(h=1.5m). Any higher and the tube will overflow.

p = (0.85 x 10
3
) x 9.81 x 1.5

p = 12 508 N/m2 (or Pa)

p = 12.5 kN/m2 (or kPa)
Solution
58
An example of the U-Tube manometer
Using a u-tube manometer to measure gauge pressure of fluid density = 700
kg/m
3
, and the manometric fluid is mercury, with a relative density of 13.6.
What is the gauge pressure if:
(a) h1 = 0.4m and h2 = 0.9m?
(b) h1 stayed the same but h2 = -0.1m?

Solution
P
B
= P
C

P
B
= P
A
+ gh
1

P
B
= P
Atm
+
man
gh2
We are measuring gauge pressure so
P
atm
= 0

P
A
=
man
gh
2
- gh
1


a) P
A
= 13.6 x 10
3
x 9.81 x 0.9 - 700 x 9.81 x 0.4
= 117 327 N, 117.3 kN (1.17 bar)
b) P
A
= 13.6 x 10
3
x 9.81 x (-0.1) - 700 x 9.81 x 0.4
= -16 088.4 N, -16 kN (-0.16 bar)
The negative sign indicates that the pressure is
below atmospheric
59
Example of the u-tube for pressure difference measurement
In the figure below two pipes containing the same fluid of density = 990 kg/m
3

are connected using a u-tube manometer. What is the pressure between the
two pipes if the manometer contains fluid of relative density 13.6?
Solution
P
C
= P
D


P
C
= P
A
+ g h
a


P
D
= P
B
+ g (h
b
- h) +
man
g h

P
A
- P
B
= g (h
b
- h
a
) + hg(
man
- )

= 990 x9.81x(0.75-1.5) + 0.5x9.81 x(13.6-
0.99) x 10
3
= -7284 + 61852
= 54 568 N/m
2
(or Pa or 0.55 bar)

60
Example of an inclined manometer.
An inclined tube manometer consists of a vertical cylinder 35mm diameter. At the
bottom of this is connected a tube 5mm in diameter inclined upward at an angle of 15
to the horizontal, the top of this tube is connected to an air duct. The vertical cylinder
is open to the air and the manometric fluid has relative density 0.785.
Determine the pressure in the air duct if the manometric fluid moved 50mm along the
inclined tube.
What is the error if the movement of the fluid in the vertical cylinder is ignored?
Solution
61
for a manometer where
man
>> .
where
z
2
= x sin q, and A
1
z
1
= a
2
x

z
1
= x (d/D)
2


where x is the reading on the manometer scale.

p
1
is atmospheric i.e. p
1
= 0
And x = -50mm = -0.05m
62
If the movement in the large cylinder is ignored the term (d/D)
2
will disappear
So the error induced by this assumption is
63
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
Basic Concepts and Naming
Pressure = h
= spec gravity of water
h = depth of water
C = Center of Mass of Gate
CP = Center of Pressure on Gate
Fr = Resultant Force acts at CP
h
Pressure variation with depth
64
Now consider an open tank containing fluid as shown
below:
Specific weight=
F
R

P
Free surface P=P
m

h
For fluids at rest, Force acting
must be perpendicular to the
surface since there is no
shearing stress.
As already mentioned,
pressure varies linearly as
fluid depth i.e.
P=h
For a horizontal surface such as shown above, resultant force F
R
= PA,
where A is the x-sectional area. In terms of fluid depth we have
F
R
= h A
65
For more general case in which a submerged plane surface is inclined
as illustrated below, the determination of F
r
is painstaking.
Now, let the surface lie along the plane that intersects point O at the free
surface
Force acting on a small area A
at depth h is given by
F= h A
The sum of these forces over
the entire area gives the
resultant force i.e.



} }
c = c =
A A
r
A y A h F u sin
O
h
y
Where h=y sin u
}
c =
A
r
A y F u sin
Since and u are const.
66
F
R
= A Y
C
sinu
or F
R
= A H
c
The integral appearing on the RHS is the First Moment of Area
wrt x-axis, hence
O
h
y
As shown The Center of
Pressure Y
r
lies below
the centroid - since
pressure increases with
depth. To determine Y
r
,
we need second moment
of Area

}
= c
A
c
A y A y
Where H
c
is the vertical
distance from the fluid
surface to the centroid of
the area.
67
O
h
y
} }
c = c =
A A
r r
A y F y Y F
2
sinu
But we know

u sin
c r
AY F =
Moment of resultant force=moment of
distributed pressure.
A Y
A y
Y
c
A
r
}
c
=
2
The numerator of the above
Eq. is the second moment of
the area i.e. I
x
.
A Y
I
Y
c
x
r
=
68
2
c xc x
AY I I + =
Parallel axis theorem (review solid
mechanisms)
I
xc
= second moment of the
area wrt an axis passing
through the centroid and
parallel to x-axis.
c
c
xc
r
Y
A Y
I
Y + =
Indicates that resultant force does not pass
through the centroid.
Note: First term RHS is very small compared to
the second term.
Similarly, the x-coordinate, X
r
, for the resultant force can be
determined as follows:
} }
c = c =
A A
r r
A xy F x X F u sin
A Y
I
A Y
A xy
X
c
xy
c
A
r
=
c
=
}
c
c
xyc
r
X
A Y
I
X + =
Parallel axis
theorem
69
Example
What is the Magnitude and Location of the
Resultant force of water on the door?

W
= 62.4 lbs/ft
3
Water Depth = 6 feet
Door Height = 4 feet
Door Width = 3 feet

70
Solution
Magnitude of Resultant
Force:
F
R
=
W
A H
C
F
R
= 62.4 x 12 x 4 = 2995.2 lbs

Important variables:
H
C
and Y
c
= 4
X
c
= 1.5
A = 4 x 3 = 12
I
xc
= (1/12)bh
3

= (1/12)x3x4
3
=

16 ft
4

Location of Force:
Y
R
= (I
xc
/ Y
c
A) + Y
c
Y
R
= (16 / 4x12) + 4 = 4.333 ft down
X
R
= X
c
(symmetry) = 1.5 ft from the
corner of the door
71
Example
The 4-m-diameter circular gate shown below is located in the inclined
wall of a large reservoir containing water ( =9.80 kN/m
3
). The gate is
mounted on a shaft along its horizontal diameter. For a water depth of
10 m above the shaft determine the magnitude and location of the
resultant force exerted on the gate by the water.
10 m
x
y
c
F
R

shaft
72
Solution
To determine the magnitude of the force on
water we apply;
F
R
= A H
c

= 9.80*10*(3.13*2
2
)
= 1230x10
3
N= 1.23 MN
.
Centre of
pressure
To locate the centre of resultant
force we recall
c
c
xc
r
Y
A Y
I
Y + =
c
c
xyc
r
X
A Y
I
X + =
73
Because of symmetry, the centre of pressure must lie
along the diameter A-A and therefore X
r
=0
For circular shape:
4
4
R
I
xc
t
=
c
c
xc
r
Y
A Y
I
Y + =
0 2 0
2
60 sin
10
) 2 * )( 60 sin / 10 (
) 2 )( 4 / (
+ =
t
t
r
Y
Remember sin 60
o
= 10/y
c

Y
c
= 0.0866 m + 11.55 m = 11.6 m
74
If the surface is curved the forces on each element of the surface will not be
parallel and must be combined using some vectorial method.
It is most straightforward to calculate the horizontal and vertical components and
combine these to obtain the resultant force and its direction. (This can also be
done for all three dimensions, but here we will only look at one vertical plane).
In the diagram above the liquid is resting on top of a curved base AB.
Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface
Consider forces acting on curved surface AB
The element
of fluid ABC is
equilibrium
(as the fluid is
at rest).

75
Horizontal forces
Considering the horizontal forces, none can act on CB as there
are no shear forces in a static fluid so the forces would act on
the faces AC and AB as shown below.
We can see that the horizontal force on AC, must equal
and be in the opposite direction to the resultant force on
the curved surface( AC is the projection of the curved
surface AB onto a vertical plane)

76
The resultant horizontal force of a fluid above a curved surface
is:
R
H
= Resultant force on the projection of the curved surface
onto a vertical plane (acts through the centre of pressure of the
projection of the curved surface onto an vertical plane).

Thus we can use the pressure diagram method to calculate the
position and magnitude of the resultant horizontal force on a
two dimensional curved surface
Vertical forces
The diagram below shows the vertical forces which act
on the element of fluid above the curved surface
77
-There are no shear force on the
vertical edges, so the vertical
component can only be due to the
weight of the fluid.

-The resultant vertical force of a
fluid above a curved surface is:

-R
V
= Weight of fluid directly above
the curved surface.
and it will act vertically downward
through the centre of gravity of the
mass of fluid.
78
Resultant force
The overall resultant force is found by combining the vertical
and horizontal components vectorialy,


The angle the resultant force makes to the horizontal is
R
V

R
H

u
79
Example
A 4 m long curved gate is located in the side of a reservior
containing water as shown below. Determine the magnitude of
the horizontal and vertical components of the force of the
water on the gate. Determine also the resultant force and the
angle it makes with the horizontal.
Water
9 m
x
3m
A
Solution
CG
W
F
H

F
1

F
V

A
C
B
Free-body diagram
80
The magnitude of F
1
is found from the equation
F
1
= A H
c
H
c
= 7.5 m, A = 4*3 (curved surface area), =9.81 kN/m
3

F
1
= 9.81*12*7.5 = 882.9 kN

But F
1
= F
H
, therefore
F
H
= 882.9 kN
W= * volume
=9.81*[(3.14*9/4)+ 3*6)]*4
= 983.6 kN
F
V
= 983.6 kN
Curved surface
Area above
curved surface
Length of curved
gate
81
F
R
= ( F
H
+ F
V
)
0.5

= (882.9 + 983.6)
0.5

=1321.7 kN
u= tan
-1
(F
H
/F
V
)
=tan
-1
(882.9/983.6)
=

82
Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion
Recall general equation of motion
-VP - k= a
^
So that for x-axis
Fluid at rest or in motion with
no shear stress
x
a
x
p
=
c
c

For y-axis
y
a
y
p
=
c
c

For z-axis
z
a
z
p
+ =
c
c

x
y
z
If a fluid in motion is assumed to undergo rigid-body motion then
shear stress can be neglected. Eg. Fluid in container accelerating
along a straight path.
83
(a) Linear motion
y
a
y
p
=
c
c
Consider an open container translating along a straight path
at a constant acceleration a
V
Free surface
Slope= dz/dy
P
1

P
2

P
3

Constant
pressure lines
Since a
x
=0, the pressure
gradient in the x-direction is
zero and therefore it follows:
) (
z
a g
z
p
+ =
c
c

a
z

a
y

a
If we consider two points that are closely spaced:( y and y+y)
and (z and z+ z) then change in pressure can be expressed:
84
dz
z
p
dy
y
p
dp
c
c
+
c
c
=
y
a
y
p
=
c
c
) (
z
a g
z
p
+ =
c
c

dz a g dy a dp
z y
) ( + =
Recall
Along a line of constant pressure dp= o and therefore
z
y
a g
a
dy
dz
+
=
85
(b) Rigid-body rotation
Consider a fluid contained in a tank that rotates with a
constant angular velocity about an axis e
Since the path of the fluid is circular, we make use of
cylindrical polar coordinates: r, u and z
-VP - k= a
^
r, u and z directions are given by
The acceleration in the
a
r
=-rw
2 ,
a
u
=0, a
z
=0

from
2
e r
r
p
=
c
c
0 =
c
c
u
p
=
c
c
z
p
a
r
=
-
r
w
2
e
A
x
i
s

o
f

r
o
t
a
t
i
o
n
The pressure is a function of 2
variables, r and z.
dz
z
p
dr
r
p
dp
c
c
+
c
c
=
a
r
=-rw
2
e
Axis of
rotation
86
dz dr r dp e =
2
g
r
dr
dz
2
e
=
.
2
2 2
const
g
r w
z + =
Along a surface of constant pressure, such as free surface,
dp=0, so that
The equation for surfaces of constant
pressure is
dz dr r dp
} } }
= e
2
(i)
.
2
2 2
const z
r w
p + =

Equation reveals that

surfaces of constant
pressure are parabolic
x
y
z
P
1

P
2

P
3

P
4

.
2
2 2
g
r w
p
1

P
2

P
3

P
4

Pressure distribution
in a rotating liquid
87
Example
The cross section for the fuel tank of an experimental vehicle is shown
below. The rectangular tank is vented to the atmosphere, and a pressure
transducer is located in its side as illustrated. During testing of the
vehicle, the tank is subjected to a constant linear acceleration, a
y
(a)
Determine an expression that relates a
y
and the pressure (in lb/ft
2
) at the
transducer for a fuel with a SG=0.65. (b) What is the maximum
acceleration that can occur before the fuel level drops below the
transducer?

a
y
vent
Air
Fuel
(2) (1)
0.75 ft 0.75 ft
V
Transducer
z
1

0.5 ft
z
y
88
Solution
For a constant horizontal acceleration the fuel will move as a rigid body.
The slope of the fuel surface can be expressed as
g
a
dy
dz
y
=
Since a
z
=0
For an arbitrary value of a
y
, the change in depth z
1
, of liquid on the right side
of the tank can be found from the Eq.
g
a
ft
z
y
=
75 . 0
1
z
1
= (0.75) (a
y
/g)
Since there is no pressure in the vertical z direction, the pressure along the
wall varies hydrostatically with depth. Thus, the pressure at the transducer
is given by
P = h
h is the depth of fuel above the transducer
P= (0.65)(62.4)[0.5-(0.750(a
y
/g )
= 20.3 30.4 (a
y
/g)
For z
1
s 0.5 ft
89
(b) The limiting value for a
y
( when the fuel level reaches
the transducer) can be found from the Eq.
z
1
= (0.75) (a
y
/g)
For z
1
= 0.5, acceleration becomes (a
y
)
max

0.5= (0.75) (a
y
)
max
/g)
(a
y
)
max
=

2g/3
90
Chapter 3 Flow of Fluids: Conservation of Mass, Energy and
Momentum
General Conservation Laws
Consideration of the conservation laws of three major
extensive quantities:
-Mass: total mass
-Total energy: the sum of internal, kinetic potential, and
pressure energy
-Momentum: both linear and angular
91
Fig. 3.1 (a) System and its surrounding (b) transfers to and from the
system
The interaction between the system and surroundings is typically by one or more of the
following mechanisms:

1. A flowing stream, either entering or leaving the system
2. A contact force on the boundary, usually normal or tangential
3.A body force, due to an external field that acts throughout the system, of which
gravity is the prime example
4.Useful work, such as electrical energy entering a motor or shaft work leaving a
turbine.
92
Let X denote mass, energy, or momentum. Over a finite
time period, the general conservation law for X is:

Nonreacting system
X
in
X
out
= AX
system
3.1

For a mass balance on species i in a reacting system
X
in
i

X
out
i

+X
created
i
X
destroyed
i
= AX
system
i
3.2
3.2 Mass Balances
If we let m
in
be the rate of addition of mass into the
system
m
out
be the rate of removal of mass from the
system
Then the transient mass balance (for nonreacting system)
is:

93
m
in
- m
out
= dM
system
/dt,
where the term on the RHS denotes the rate of
accumulation of mass in the system

Now consider one-dimensional duct showing control
volume
The Continuity Equation
94
By principle of conservation of mass and considering a
small time, At
This equation is called the continuity equation for
steady one-dimensional flow.
95
Example: Mass balance for tank evacuation
The tank shown below has a volume V= 1 m
3
and contains
air that is maintained at a constant temperature by being in
thermal equilibrium with its surroundings. If the initial absolute
pressure is P
o
= 1 bar, how long will it take for the pressure to
fall to a final pressure of 0.0001 bar if the air is evacuated at
a constant rate of v=0.001 m
3
/s, independent of the pressure
in the tank.
96
Solution
The tank is taken as the system. Mass balance becomes

Inlet to the system- rate of loss from the system= rate of accumulation

But there is no mass to the system and therefore
- rate of loss from the system= rate of accumulation

- ) ( V
dt
d
v =

dt
d
V
dt
dV
dt
d
V

= + = since volume is constant

For ideal gas we have

RT
Mp
= so that

dt
dp
RT
M
V
RT
Mp
v = since the term M/RT is common on both sides, it
cancels out so that we have:
97
p
V
v
dt
dp
= separation of the variables give


} }
=
t p
p
dt
V
v
p
dp
o
0
or
V
vt
P
P
o
= ln
The resulting solution shows an exponential decay of the tank pressure with time;

) / exp( V vt p p
o
=
Time taken is given by 5 . 153 9210
1
0001 . 0
ln
001 . 0
1
ln = = = = s
P
p
v
V
t
o
f
min
Example
Let us now examine the situation illustrated in the figure below.
A tank initially contains 1000 kg of brine containing 10% salt by
mass. An inlet stream of brine containing 20% salt by mass,
flows into the tank at a rate of 20 kg/min. The mixture in the
tank is kept uniform by stirring. Brine is removed from the tank
via an outlet pipe at a rate of 10 kg/min. Find the amount of salt
in the tank at any time t, and the elapsed time when the amount
of salt in the tank is 200 kg.
98
Solution

We have 20 kg/min getting in and 10 kg/min getting out. Therefore amount of brine lost:
10-20 = -10 kg/min

Accumulation of brine is given by ) 1000 (
1000
=
c
c
}
M
dt
d
dM
t
M
, where M is the total mass
of brine. Separating the variables and solving for M gives

M=1000 + 10t
99
Now let S be the amount of salt in the tank at any time. The concentration by weight of
salt may be expressed as

brine kg
salt kg
t
S
M
S

10 1000 +
=
Amount of salt leaving the tank at any time is given by (flow rate x concentration)


t
S
10 1000
10
+


Amount of salt entering is given by 0.2x20 = 4 kg/s

Rate of accumulation is 4-
t
S
10 1000
10
+
=
dt
dS


Thus 4
100
=
+
+
t
S
dt
dS
This is first order linear differential equation. The general solution
is


t
C
t
t t
S
+
+
+
+
=
100 100
) 200 ( 2

The constant of integration may be evaluated, using the initial condition that S=100 kg at
t=0 to give C=10,000
100
Therefore
t
t t
S
+
+ +
=
100
2 400 000 , 10
2


The elapse time necessary for S to equal 200 kg may be evaluated to give t= 36.6 min
3.3 Energy Balances
Identity of energies
-internal energy, e
-potential energy, gz
-kinetic energy, u
2
/2
-work, W
-heat, Q
-flow work/energy, P/
101
Recall
X
in
X
out
= AX
system
In the present situation, X, refers to energy. Application of this equation over small time
period gives
dM
in
(e+P/+gz+u
2
/2)
in
dM
out
(e+P/+gz+u
2
/2)
out
+ dQ-dW= d[M(e+gz+u
2
/2)]
system

(3.3)
Now, let us consider a general system given below
W(Work)
system
Outlet
q (heat)
1
2
W(Work)
system
Outlet
q (heat)
1
2
Steady-state
energy balance
102
The energy entering with the inlet stream plus the heat supplied to the system must be
equal the energy leaving with the exit stream plus work done by the system on its
surroundings. At steady state, the RHS of the general energy balance equation is zero
and dM
in
= dM
out
giving:

e
1
+P
1
/
1
+gz
1
+u
1
2
/2 +q =e
2
+P
2
/+gz
2
+u
2
2
/2 + w 3.4


where q and w denotes heat and work done per unit mass
For an infinitesimally small system in which differential changes are occurring, we
have

de + d(u
2
/2) + d(gz)+ d(pu) = dq dw 3.5

In which de is a differential change, and u=1/ is the volume per unit mass.
The increase in internal energy arises from frictional work d dissipated into heat,
heat addition dq from the surroundings, less work pdu done by the fluid.
de = d+dq-pdu

103
Now eliminating the change in the internal energy and noting that d(pu)= pdu + udp

(d+dq-pdu) + d(u
2
/2) + d(gz)+ (pdu + udp) = dq dw, which simplifies to the
differential form of the mechanical energy balance, in which heat terms are absent

d(u
2
/2) + d(gz)+ dw + 1/(dp) + d = 0 3.6

For a finite system, for flow fro point 1 to point 2, Eq. 3.6 integrates to

( ) 0
2
2
1
2
= + + + A +
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
}
f w
dp
gz
u

3.7
in which a finite change is consistently the final minus the initial value, for example:


2 2 2
2
1
2
2
2
u u u
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
104
A steady state balance for an incompressible fluid of constant density permits the
integral to be evaluated easily, giving

( ) 0
2
2
= + +
A
+ A +
|
|
.
|

\
|
A f w
p
gz
u

3.8
Since g is constant, we have

0
2
2
= + +
A
+ A +
|
|
.
|

\
|
A f w
p
z g
u

3.9
which is the generalized Bernoulli equation.

Note: Since its practically impossible to convert heat entirely into useful work, the term
cannot be negative
105
Example
The figure below shows an arrangement for pumping n-pentane (= 39.3 lb
m
/ft
3
) at
25
o
C from one tank to another, through a vertical distance of 40 ft. All piping is 3-in.
I.D. Assume that the overall frictional losses in the pipes are given by:

= 2.5 u
2
m

For simplicity, however, you may ignore friction in the short length of pipe leading to
the pump inlet. Also, the pump and its motor have a combined efficiency of 75%. If
the mean velocity u
m
is 25 ft/s, determine the following:
(a) The power required to drive the pump
(b) The pressure at the inlet of the pump, and compare it with 10.3 psia, which is the
vapour pressure of n-pentane at 25
o
C.
(c) The pressure at the pump exit


4 ft
40 ft
flow
Supply
tank
Storage
tank
1
2
4
3
pump
Vent
Vent
4.5 ft
4 ft
40 ft
flow
4 ft
40 ft
flow
Supply
tank
Storage
tank
1
2
4
3
pump
Vent
Vent
4.5 ft

106
Solution

The x-sectional area is given by A= 3.14/4(3/12)
2
= 0.0491 ft
2

The mass flow rate is m = u
m
A = 39.3 x25x0.0491 = 48.2 lb
m
/s.

For large supply tank, u
1
can be assumed to be zero since the liquid/vapour interface
in it is descending only very slowly.

0
2
2
= + +
A
+ A +
|
|
.
|

\
|
A f w
p
z g
u

0 25 5 . 2 0 ) 40 2 . 32 (
2
0 25
2
2
= + + + +

x w x

Hence, the work per unit mass flowing is:

w= -3163 ft
2
/s
2
= (- 3163 ft
2
/s
2
)/(32.2 lb
m
ft/ lb
f
s
2
) = -98.3 (ft lb
f
)/(lb
m
),
107
in which he minus sign indicates that work is done on th liquid. The power required
to drive the pump motor is:

P= (mass flow rate x work)mw = (48.2x98.3)/(737.6x0.75) = 8.56 kW.

The pressure at the inlet to the pump is obtained by applying Bernoullis equation
between points 1 and 2:


2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
2 2
gz
p u
gz
p u
+ + = + +



Note: The pipe has a uniform diameter of 3 in., the velocity u
2
entering the pump is the
same as that in the vertical section of the pipe, namely, 25 ft/s. Solving the pressure at the
pump inlet,

p
2
= [ g(z
1
-z
2
)- u
2
2
/2 ] = (39.3)/(32.2x144) [ (32.2x4.5 25
2
/2) ]
= -1.42 psig = 14.7 1.42 = 13.28 psia.

(Note: p
2
is more than vapour pressure of n-pentane. If it were less, the pump would not
work because of cavitation).

0 = +
A
+ A w
p
z g

Since p
2
= -1.42 psig, w= -3.163 ft
2
/s
2
and Az = 25.2 psig

p
3
= -1.42 + 39.3/(32.2x144)x (3163- 32.2x0.5) = 25.2 psig.
108
3.4 The Bernoullis Equation
Situations frequently occur in which the following
simplifying assumptions can reasonably be made:
1. The flow is steady
2. There are no work effects; that is, the fluid neither
performs work (as in a turbine), nor has work
performed on it (as in a pump). Thus, w= 0.
3. The flow is frictionless, so that =0. This assumption
is not true for long pipes
4. The fluid is incompressible, that is, the density is
constant.

109
Under the above circumstances, the general energy balance reduces
to:

0
2
2
=
A
+ A +
|
|
.
|

\
|
A

p
z g
u
3.10
Eq. 3.10 is the famous Bernoullis equation. For flow between
points 1 and 2 on the same streamline, or for any two points in a
fluid under static equilibrium (in which case the velocities are
zero), Eq. 3.10 becomes:



energy outlet Total energy inlet Total
p
gz
u p
gz
u

2
2
2
2 1
1
2
1
2 2
+ + = + + 3.11
Eq. 3.11 states that although the kinetic, potential, and pressure
energies may vary individually, their sum remains constant.
110
Momentum Balances

If an object of mass, m, moves with velocity, u, then momentum of the object is defined
as the product mass and velocity i.e.

= mu where is momentum.

Now if a system, such as a river, consists of several parts each moving with different
velocities u, the total momentum of the system is obtained by over all its mass:

= m d u
m
}

m
u
Momentum= mu
m
1

m
2

m
3

m
4

m
5

u
1

u
2

u
3

u
4

u
5

u
n
m
n

m d u
m
}
111
The law of conservation of momentum
The net rate of transfer of momentum into a system equals the
rate of increase of momentum of the system. Momentum is
transferred by two modes: by a force and by convection.
1. A force: In fluid mechanics, the most frequently occurring
forces are those due to pressure (acting normal to the
surface), shear stress (acting tangentially to the surface)
and gravity (acting vertically downwards). Pressure and shear
stress are examples of contact forces, since they occur over
some region of contact with the surroundings of the system.
Gravity is a body force since it acts throughout a system.

112
.Consider a free fall of an object of mass m.
If momentum is taken as positive in the downwards
direction,

then, the rate of transfer of momentum to the system is
the gravitational force mg and ie equated to the rate of
increase of downwards momentum of the mass i.e.

dt
d
mg F = = ( )
dt
du
m mu
dt
d
= = ) (

g
dt
du
= (for free fall)
113
Now lets consider a steady flow of fluid is a pipe of length L
and diameter D. The upstream pressure p1 exceeds the
downstream pressure p2 and thereby provides a driving
force for flow from left to the right. The shear stress tw
exerted by the wall on the fluid tends to retard the motion.
D
P
1
P
2
L
Direction
of flow
Wall shear stress t
w
D
P
1
P
2
L
Direction
of flow
Wall shear stress t
w
dt
d
DL p p
D
w
= t t
t
) (
4
2 1
2
()
Momentum balance in
the right direction
114
At steady state,
dt
d
( )= 0 and hence
L
D p p
w
4
) (
2 1

= t (equation for determining wall shear stress).
2. By Convective transfer. Lets consider a
situation given below in which water from a hose
of x-sectional area A impinges with velocity u on
the far side of the trolley of mass m.

m
v
jet
u
C
B
A
Nozzle of
area A
Mass flow
uA
m
v
jet
u
C
B
A
Nozzle of
area A
Mass flow
uA
Rate of
momentum
transfer = Au
2

(momentum per
unit time)
115
Two scenarios
(a)Control surface moving with trolley. When the control surface
moves at the same velocity as the trolley, an observation
perceives water entering the system across BC not with velocity
u but with a relative velocity (u-v) so that the convection of mass
into the control volume is A(u-v).
m
v
jet
C
B
A
Water
supply
Stationery
observer
u
System is moving
with velocity v
m
v
jet
C
B
A
Water
supply
Stationery
observer
u
System is moving
with velocity v
Stationery
Observer-
moving system
116
A momentum balance (positive direction to the right) gives:
Rate of addition of momentum= Rate of increase of momentum

A(u-v)u =
dt
dm
v
dt
dv
m mv
dt
d
+ = ) (

Because of water supply by the nozzle, the rate of mass increase of the system is
given by

) ( v u A
dt
dm
= and therefore

A(u-v)u= ]) [ ( v u A v
dt
dv
m + expanding we get

A(u
2
-vu)- A(uv-v
2
) =
dt
dv
m
If we set dv/dt = a (acceleration), then

2
) ( v u
m
A
a =

117
(b) Control volume fixed. The control volume is fixed so that
the trolley moves within it and that part of the jet of length L
inside the control surface is lengthening in space at a rate
dL/dt = v and increasing its momentum at ALu.
m
v
jet
C
B
A
Water
supply
Stationery
observer
u
System is
stationery
L
m
v
jet
C
B
A
Water
supply
Stationery
observer
u
System is
stationery
m
v
jet
C
B
A
Water
supply
Stationery
observer
u
System is
stationery
L
Stationery observer-fixed system
118
Av
dt
dm
AL
dt
d
dt
dm
Au + = + = ) (
dt
dL
Au
dt
dm
v
dt
dv
m ALu mv
dt
d
Au + + = + = ) (
2
Auv
dt
dm
v ma + +
A mass balance gives:
Rate of addition of mass= rate of increase of mass

since dL/dt= v
Momentum balance gives
Rate of addition = Rate of increase

=
since dv/dt=a and dL/dt=v
=
From mass balance equation dm/dt = A(u-v)
119
Therefore
Au
2
= ma + v [A(u-v)] + Auv

Au
2
- A(uv-v
2
+uv) = ma

A(u
2
-2uv-v
2
) = ma

2
) ( v u
m
A
a =

verifying the equivalence of the two approaches.

Example: Impinging jet of water
The figure below shows a plan of a jet of water impinging
against a shield that is held stationery by a force F opposing
the jet, which divides into several radially outwards streams,
each leaving at the right angles to the jet. If the total water flow
rate is Q=1 ft
3
/s and its velocity is u= 100 ft/s, find F (lbf)
120
shield
Force, F
m
u
Jet impinging against
a shield
The exiting streams have no momentum to the right.
The opposing force amounts to the rate of addition of momentum F
to the left and hence at steady state

Solution
Taking the right direction as
positive and assuming fluid
mass flow as m the rate of
transfer of momentum into
the system by convection is
mu
mu-F= 0

So that F= mu = Qu =
f
lb
x x
8 . 193
2 . 32
100 1 4 . 62
=
121
Chapter Five: Flow Measurements
In process industries, Flowing systems require energy,
typically provided by
-pumps and compressors,
The two produce a pressure difference as the driving force
Wide variety of methods and instruments for
measuring flow
-Devices based on Bernoulli principle; orifice plate, rotameter, Pitot-static
tube, venturi meter
-Weir and Notch
- Meters: Turbine meter, Target meter, Thermal flow meter
122
Turbine flow meter
Turbine flow meter consists of a small in-line turbine
placed inside a section of pipe, the rotation speed,
which can be transmitted electrically to a recorder,
depends on the flow rate.
123
Target flow meter
Typically consisting of a disk mounted on flexible arm
and placed normal to the flow in a pipe. The
displacement of the disk, and hence the flow rate, is
determined from the output of a strain gauge attached
to the arm
124
Devices based on Bernoulli Principle
Orifice plate meter
An orifice plate is a very simple device installed in a straight run
of pipe. The orifice plate contains a hole smaller than the
pipe diameter. The flow constricts, experiences a pressure
drop, and then the differential pressure can be related to a
flow.
A
1
A
2
1 2
A
1
A
2 A
1
A
2
1 2
125
It is also important to note that relating differential
pressure to flow across an orifice depends on the location
of the pressure taps in relation to the orifice. In the Figure
below, the pressure taps are designated as P1 and
P2. "D" is the diameter of the pipe and "d" is the diameter
of the orifice.
126
Let apply Bernoullis equation at points 1 and 2
(see orifice plate arrangement above) which have the
same elevation (z
1
=z
2
)


2
2
2 1
2
1
2 2
p u p u
+ = +


Conservation of mass between point 1 and 2 gives continuity equation

u
1
A
1
= u
2
A
2
5.2


Elimination of u
2
gives in Eq. 5.1 gives



2
2
2
2
1
2
1 1
2
1
2 2
p
A
A u p u
+ = + 5.3
5.1
127
Solution for u
1
yields


|
|
.
|

\
|

=
1
) ( 2
2
2
2
1
2 1
1
A
A
p p
u

5.4

So that the volumetric flow rate Q is :


|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

= =
1
) ( 2
1
) ( 2
2 2
2
1
2 1
1
2
1
2
1
2 1
1 1 1
o c
A C
A
p p
A
A
A
p p
A A u Q

5.5

Where the coefficient of contraction C
c
is approximately 0.63. In most cases you will
find the following equation that uses a dimensionless discharge coefficient C
D
to be
most frequently used.


|
|
.
|

\
|

=
1
) ( 2
2
2
1
2 1
1
o
D
A
A
p p
A C Q

5.6

The values of C
D
depends on the N
Re
and are usually presented graphically.


128
Pitot tube
The Pitot tube (named after Henri Pitot in 1732) measures
a fluid velocity by converting the kinetic energy of the
flow into potential energy. The conversion takes place at
the stagnation point, located at the Pitot tube entrance
(see the schematic below). The device is based on
Bernoulli principle and is used in finding the velocity of a
moving craft such as a boat and airplane.
d
1
water
Stagnation point
h
2
d
1
water
Stagnation point
h
2
129
Let u
1
be the upstream velocity of approaching water. Opposite the Pitot tube, the
oncoming water decelerates and in fact comes to rest at the stagnation point at the tip of
the tube.
) ( 0 0
2
2 1
2
1
d h g
p p u
+ + + = + +

5.7
The first zero on the LHS is taken for z
1
=0 (datum) and at stagnation point u
2
=0.
From hydrostatics, the pressure at point 1 is given by
P
1
=P
2
+ gd 5.8
Combining Eqs. 5.7 and 5.8 we get
gh u 2
1
= 5.9
130
Pitot-static tube
For pipe flow, we make use of pitot-static tube as shown
below for measuring velocity at

liquid
Stagnation point
u
1
h
movable
Pipe wall
Velocity
profile
liquid
Stagnation point
u
1
h
movable
Pipe wall
Velocity
profile
different radial locations in a pipe. Two tubes are used. The
left hand tube simply measures the pressure and the movable
right-hand one is essentially a Pitot tube as before. As was
before the velocity u
1
is given by
gh u 2
1
=
131
A venturi meter is a tube with a constricted throat that increases
velocity and decreases pressure. They are used for measuring the
flowrate of compressible and incompressible fluids in pipeline
3. Venturi meter





Pipe Pipe
Throat

V
1
D
1
D
2
V
2
D
1




High-pressure tap Low-pressure tap
p
1
p
2

Contracting
section
Expanding
section
132
Apply Bernoullis equation and law of mass conservation between between stations 1 and
2:


c
2
2 2 2
c
2
1 1 1
g 2
V p
g 2
V p o

+ = + (5.10)



2 2 1 1
V A V A = (5.11)

where

p = average pressure
V = average velocity
A = area of crossection
o = kinetic energy correction factor (~ 1)
= liquid density
g
c
= Newtons law conversion factor (equals 1 in Metric system and
32.17 ft-lbm/lbf/s
2
in British system)


Solve for V
2
from eqs. (5.10) and (5.11) to get

133

( )
( )

o o
2 1 c
2
1 2 1 2
2
p p g 2
A / A
1
V

= (5.12)

To account for friction between stations 1 and 2, eq. (5.12) is modified to read


( )

2 1 c
C V 2
p p g 2
C C V

= (5.13)
where


( )
2
1 2
C
A / A 1
1
C

=

C
V
= Venturi coefficient (~ 0.98 for 2-8 diameter pipes and 0.99 for larger sizes)
134
Note: For circular pipes, (A
2
/A
1
)
2
= (D
2
/D
1
)
4
= |
4
where | = D
2
/D
1
. Also, C
C
= 1.0062 to
1.0328 for D
2
= (1/3 to ) D
1
.

Therefore,

q = volumetric flowrate =
( )

2 1 c
2
p p g 2
CA

(5.14)

m = mass flowrate = q (4.15)

with

C = C
V
C
C
(5.16)

Typically, in a well-designed venturi meter, about 90% of the pressure drop (p
1
p
2
) is
recovered.

135
Problem:
Water is flowing in a schedule 40 pipe having nominal D1 = 4 inch with a flowrate of
325 gal/min at 60F. The pressure differential in the manometer connected to the two
taps of the venturi meter is 50 inch Hg. Calculate (a) throat diameter D2 of the venturi
meter to the nearest 1/8 inch and (b) power consumed by the venturi meter (assume
10% pressure loss).
Solution:

q = (325 gal/min) / (60 s/min) / (7.48 gal/ft
3
) = 0.725 ft
3
/s

= 62.37 lbm/ft
3
at 60F

136

c
2 1
g
g
h p p =
= (50 inch) / (12 inch/ft) (32.17 ft/s
2
)/(32.17 ft-lbm/lbf/s
2
) (13.6 1) (62.37 lbm/ft
3
)

= 3275 lbf/ft
2


Substitute in eq. (5.14) to get

0.725 =
37 . 62
3275 17 . 32 2
1
A 98 . 0
4
2

|


which on using 4 / D A
2
2 2
t = yields

01275 . 0
1
D 7854 . 0
4
2
2
=
|


137
which has to be solved (iteratively) for D
2
. For a first approximation , assume
1 1
4
~ | . Then the above equation gives D
2
= 0.127 ft = 1.53 inch and we get | =
1.53 inch / 4.026 inch = 0.38, and thus 98 . 0 1
4
= | which is very close to 1.

Hence, to the nearest 1/8 inch, D
2
= 1.5 inch.

permanent pressure loss ~ 10% of (p
1
p
2
) = 327.5 lbf/ft
2


Volumetric flowrate q = (325 gal/min) / (7.48 ft
3
/gal) = 43.4 ft
3
/min

Hence, power consumed by meter = (43.4 ft
3
/min)(327.5 lbf/ft
2
)/(33,000 lbf-ft/min/hp)
= 0.43 hp (= 0.32 kW)
138
S
c
a
l
e
Float
Flow
z
1
z
2
Tapered
tube
Mg
T
u
b
e

a
r
e
a

A
p
1
p
2
Annular
area a
S
c
a
l
e
Float
Flow
S
c
a
l
e
Float
Flow
z
1
z
2
Tapered
tube
Mg
T
u
b
e

a
r
e
a

A
p
1
p
2
Annular
area a
4. Rota Meter
A rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass, with a float
inside that is pushed up by flow and pulled down by gravity. At a higher flow
rate more area (between the float and the tube) is needed to accommodate
the flow, so the float rises.
139
Mass, energy and momentum balances in the upward direction yield;

Continuity: m = a u A u
2 1
=

Bernoulli:
2
2 2
2 1
1 2
1
2
1
2
` 1
gz
p
u gz
p
u + + = + +




Momentum:
(i ) due to pressure
A p p ) (
2 1

(ii) convection

2 1
mu mu
(iii) Gravity : (a)mass of fluid
x
g
Volume of fluid
x
density
x
g
g
M
A z z
f

] ) [(
1 2

(b) mass of float
x
g
Mg

140
Combination of (i) through (iii), we get
0 ] ) [( ) (
1 2 2 1 2 1
= + Mg g
M
A z z mu mu A p p
f

Pressure convection gravity

In which and
f
are the densities of the fluid and the float, respectively. Starting with
elimination of terms involving pressure and elevation in the momentum balance using
energy balance equation

0 ] ) [( ) ( [
2
1 2 2 1 1 2
2
1
2
2
= + +
|
.
|

\
|
Mg g
M
A z z mu mu A z z A u u
f

0 ] [ [
2
2 1
2
1
2
2
= + +
|
.
|

\
|
Mg g
M
mu mu A u u
f

141
Mg g
M
mu mu A u u
f
+ = +
|
.
|

\
|

] [ [
2
2 1
2
1
2
2


Eliminating terms involving m and u
2
using mass balance equation

|
.
|

\
|
=
a
A
u u
1 2

A u m
1
=

Mg g
M
a
A
A u A u a A u
f
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|

] [ 1 ) / ( [
2
2
1
2
1
2 2
1


|
|
.
|

\
|
=
(
(

+
|
.
|

\
|
f
Mg
a
A
a
A
A u

1 1
2
2
1
2
2
1


Simplifying further we get the following equation:


|
|
.
|

\
|
=
f
Mg
a
A
A u

1 ) 1 (
2
1
2 2
1

142
The flow rate is then


2
1
1
1 2
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

= =
a
A
A
Mg
A u A Q
f

143
Buoyancy Example Problem # 1
Displaced Volume of Water:
V
disp-W
= 4/3 x t x R
3

V
disp-W
= 33.51 ft
3
Buoyancy Force:
F
B
=
W
x V
disp-w
F
B
= 62.4 x 33.51
F
B
= 2091.024 lbs up
Sum of the Forces:
EF
y
= 0 = 500 - 2091.024 + T
T = 1591.024 lbs down
144

145
F
R
= A Y
C
sinu
or F
R
= A H
c
Y
R
= (I
xc
/ Y
c
A) + Y
c

X
R
= (I
xyc
/ Y
c
A) + X
c

but for a rectangle or circle:
X
R
= X
c
For 90 degree walls:
F
R
= A H
c
146
System V
Boundary B
Surrounding S
Accumulation
(or depletion)
Loss through
outlet(s)
Addition through
inlet(s)
V=1m
3

P
o
= 1 bar
To vacuum pump
V=0.001 m
3
/s
(independent of
pressure)
147
Work done,
dW
system
dM
in

dM
out

Heat added, dQ
148
W (Work)
system
Outlet
q (heat)
1
2
149
4 ft
40 ft
flow
Supply
tank
Storage
tank
1
2
4
3
pump
Vent
Vent
4.5 ft
150
D
P
1
P
2

L
Direction
of flow
Wall shear stress t
w

151
m
v
jet
C
B
A
Water
supply

Stationery
observer
u
System is moving
with velocity v
152
m
v
jet
C
B
A
Water
supply

Stationery
observer
u
System is
stationery
L
153
shield
Force, F
m
u
154
A
1

A
2

1 2
155
d
1
water
Stagnation point
h
2
156
liquid
Stagnation point
u
1

h
movable
Pipe wall
Velocity
profile
157
158
20 kg/min
Salt content
20% by mass
Tank, initial
content 100kg
10 kg/min