Validity and Reliability

Validity and Reliability

There are two major criteria for evaluating

measurements (instruments): Validity

Have we measured the concept that we intend to measure? Validity is an indication of how sound your research is. Validity is the accuracy of your measurement.

Reliability

Is there consistency in our measurement?

Validity and reliability are usually complementary concepts.

Content

Validity (Are we measuring the right concept?)

Criterion Construct

Predictive (Independent Variable)

Goodness of Measure ( How well have you measured the concept?)

Criterion (Dependent Variable)

Stability ( overtime & situation)

Reliability ( Are the measures consistent and accurate?)
Test-retest Alt-form

Consistency
Split-Half Inter-item reliability

(How well the items are linked together as a set?)

Validity and Reliability

Please Note
Reliability is a necessary condition for validity.
Researchers often use the instruments tested earlier. Validity and reliability are the strengths of our

conclusion and inferences. Example

Weighing Machine

Purposes of Sampling
There are two basic purposes of sampling:

To estimate population parameters To test hypothesis

Methods of Sampling
Probability Sampling

Simple random sampling Stratified random sampling Systematic sampling Cluster and multistage sampling

Non-Probability Sampling

Purposive sampling Convenient (grab) sampling Quota (stratification) sampling Snowball (chain, hard-to-reach population) sampling

Potential Sources of Error

Sampling Error (Random Error)

Selecting non-representative samples. This error may be the result of chance. Even if you are careful, this error will take place. The main protection against this kind of error is to use a larger enough sample.

Non-Sampling Error (Systematic Error)

Non-sampling error (also called bias) is a more serious problem.

This cannot be controlled by making the sample size bigger. Response Error Researcher Error (Population definition, measurement, data analysis) Interviewer Error (Respondent selection, questioning, cheating, recording) Response Error (unwillingness) Non-response Error Refusals Not-at-home

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

A research proposal is a critical element in the research process. A research proposal is a contract between the researcher and the client for whom the research is being performed. The research proposal once accepted, becomes the blueprint for the implementation of the project.

The research proposal works as a benchmark against which the final outcome is assessed.
A research proposal is a work plan, an outline, a framework, and a statement of intent.

 A research proposal is an offer by the researcher

to the buyer.

to produce a research product, or to render a service.

A research proposal tells What, when, where and to whom the research will be done.

Expected output. Application of the output.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH PROPOSALS

Internal prepared by the staff of the organization. External submitted in response to a request for bid. Academic prepared for an academic degree.

Internal and external proposals have problemsolving orientation. Academic proposals focus on knowledge generation.

SOLICITED Vs UNSOLICITED PROPOSALS

A solicited proposal is developed in response to a request for proposal

(RFP).

It has to compete against several others. It concentrates on known problems. It proposes an appropriate research design to address the problem. Research objectives are known; therefore, problem statement is brief. Qualification, resources, budgets and schedules are emphasized.

An unsolicited proposal is a request to sponsor the project. It does not have to compete against others. Its difficulty is to find the problem facing the management. It lays greater emphasis on problem statement and

objectives. Qualification of the researcher is emphasized.

RESEARCH PROPOSAL MODULES

Executive Summary Background Information Statement of the Problem Literature Review Objectives, Research Questions, Hypotheses Importance, Significance or Need of the Study Research Methods
Research Design Population and Sampling Data Analysis

Research Plan (House-keeping Arrangements)

Time-frame Budget and Resources Project Management Equipment and Instruments

Qualification of the Researchers References Appendices

Proposal Development Process

The management describes the problem and states the

management questions.

The researcher translates these management questions into

research questions.

These research questions are further elaborated into

investigative questions.

The draft research proposal is proposed.

The management and the researcher discuss the proposal; and

refine it.

The final research proposal is submitted. The proposal is approved.

The study begins.

Components of Academic Research Proposals

Title Background information Statement of the problem Literature review and theoretical framework Objectives Research questions or hypotheses Research methods References