Review - traveling waves on a string

v
t

=
The tension in the string is t.
The mass of the element dm is dl, where is the mass per unit
length of the string.
Velocity
2 2 2
1
2
cos ( )
kinetic m
dK
P v y kx t
dt
e e = =
2 2 2
1
2
cos ( )
elastic m
dU
P v y kx t
dt
e e = =
Energy transfer rates
2 2 2
1
2
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
2 2 2
2 cos ( )
2
avg m
m m
P v y kx t
v y v y
e e
e e
=
= =
( , ) sin( )
m
y x t y kx t e =
The principle of superposition for waves
It often happens that waves travel simultaneously through the
same region, e.g.
Radio waves from many broadcasters
Sound waves from many musical instruments
Different colored light from many locations from your TV
2 2
2
2 2
y y
v
x t
c c
=
c c
And have solutions:
( ) ( )
( , ) or sin
m m
y x t y f kx t y kx t e e =
This is a result of the principle of superposition, which applies to all
harmonic waves, i.e. waves that obey the linear wave equation
Nature is such that all of these waves can exist without altering
each others' motion
Their effects simply add
The principle of superposition for waves
If two waves travel simultaneously along the same stretched string,
the resultant displacement y' of the string is simply given by the
summation
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
' , , , y x t y x t y x t = +
where y
1
and y
2
would have been the displacements had the waves
traveled alone.
Overlapping waves algebraically add to produce a resultant
wave (or net wave).
Overlapping waves do not in any way alter the travel of
each other
This is the principle of superposition.
Link
Interference of waves
Suppose two sinusoidal waves with the same frequency and
amplitude travel in the same direction along a string, such that
( )
( )
1
2
sin
sin
m
m
y y kx t
y y kx t
e
e |
=
= +
The waves will add.
If they are in phase (i.e. | = 0), they combine to double the
displacement of either wave acting alone.
If they are out of phase (i.e. | = t), they combine to cancel
everywhere, since sin(o) = sin(o + t).
This phenomenon is called interference.
Interference of waves
Interference of waves
Mathematical proof:
( )
( )
1
2
sin
sin
m
m
y y kx t
y y kx t
e
e |
=
= +
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 2
' , , ,
sin sin
m m
y x t y x t y x t
y kx t y kx t e e |
= +
= + +
Then:
( ) ( )
1 1
2 2
sin sin 2sin cos o | o | o | + = +
But:
( ) | | ( )
1 1
2 2
' , 2 cos sin
m
y x t y kx t | e | = +
So:
Amplitude
Wave part
Phase
shift
Interference of waves
( ) | | ( )
1 1
2 2
' , 2 cos sin
m
y x t y kx t | e | = +
If two sinusoidal waves of the same amplitude and
frequency travel in the same direction along a stretched
string, they interfere to produce a resultant sinusoidal
wave traveling in the same direction.
If | = 0, the waves interfere constructively, cos| = 1 and the wave
amplitude is 2y
m
.
If | = t, the waves interfere destructively, cos(t/2) = 0 and the wave
amplitude is 0, i.e. no wave at all.
All other cases are intermediate between an amplitude of 0 and 2y
m
.
Note that the phase of the resultant wave also depends on the
phase difference.
Link
Standing waves
If two sinusoidal waves of the same amplitude and
wavelength travel in opposite directions along a stretched
string, their interference with each other produces a
standing wave.
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 2
1 1
2 2
' , , ,
sin sin
2 sin cos
m m
m
y x t y x t y x t
y kx t y kx t
y kx t
e e |
| e |
= +
= + + +
= +
This is clearly not a traveling wave, because it does not have the
form f(kx et).
In fact, it is a stationary wave, with a sinusoidal varying amplitude
2y
m
cos(et).
Link
t dependence x dependence
Reflections at a boundary
Waves reflect from boundaries.
This is the reason for echoes - you
hear sound reflecting back to you.
However, the nature of the reflection
depends on the boundary condition.
For the two examples on the left, the
nature of the reflection depends on
whether the end of the string is fixed
or loose.
Movies
Standing waves
and resonance
At ordinary frequencies,
waves travel backwards and
forwards along the string.
Each new reflected wave has
a new phase.
The interference is basically
a mess, and no significant
oscillations build up.
Standing waves and resonance
However, at certain special
frequencies, the interference
produces strong standing wave
patterns.
Such a standing wave is said to be
produced at resonance.
These certain frequencies are called
resonant frequencies.
Standing waves and resonance
Standing waves occur whenever the
phase of the wave returning to the
oscillating end of the string is
precisely in phase with the forced
oscillations.
Thus, the trip along the string and
back should be equal to an integral
number of wavelengths, i.e.
2
2 or for 1, 2,3...
L
L n n
n
= = =
, for 1, 2,3...
2
v v
f n n
L
= = =
Each of the frequencies f
1
, f
1
, f
1
, etc,
are called harmonics, or a harmonic
series; n is the harmonic number.
determined by geometry
Standing waves and resonance
Here is an example of a two-dimensional vibrating diaphragm.
The dark powder shows the positions of the nodes in the vibration.