ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

SPACE STRUCTURES

The common structures consists of elements such as beams,

columns, trusses and portal frames which are basically two dimensional
form from the point of view of analysis as well as design.
Interconnecting members in the third dimension such as purlins are
nearly always of a secondary character, present merely for the purpose of
transferring load and not sharing the main supporting function of the
structure.
 A Space Structure is a structural system in the form of three
dimensional assembly of elements, resisting loads which can be applied at
any point, inclined at any angle to the surface of the structure and acting in
any direction. The individual members may be made of rolled or fabricated
sections.
DEFINITION:

A Space Frame is a structural system assembled of linear elements

so arranged that forces are transferred in a three-dimensional manner. In
some cases, the constituent elements may be two- dimensional.
Macroscopically, a space frame often takes the form of a flat or a curved
surface.

A distinction is sometimes made between space frames and space

trusses. Space trusses are those systems which have pin-jointed members.
Space frames are those which have rigid jointed members.
TYPES OF SPACE STRUCTURES:

 Skeleton (braced) Frame works.

 Stressed skin systems.
 Suspended (cable or membrane) structures.
SKELETON OR BRACED FRAMEWORKS:

These types of frames are also called latticed structures or space

frames or reticulated structures. The overall shape of the surface and the
pattern of the individual members of these structures may greatly effect their
architectural appearance. Since there are innumerable possible combinations
and variations, many unique structures have been built. For reasons of utility
and economy, a majority of these structures follow regular geometric forms
and can be categorized as structures having positive Gaussian (Synclastic)
curvature (eg domes), negative Gaussian (anticlastic) curvature (eg
hyperbolic parabola) and zero Gaussian curvature (eg grids).
DOUBLE CURVATURE IN ONE DIRECTION ON CIRCULAR PLAN
CIRCULAR DOME
ELLIPTICAL DOME
PARABOLIC DOME
DOUBLE CURVATURE IN ONE DIRECTION ON IRREGULAR PLAN
FREE DOME
DOUBLE CURVATURE IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS
HYPER WAVE DOMES
SINGLE LAYER SPACE STRUCTURES
SINGLE LAYER SPACE STRUCTURES
DOUBLE LAYER SPACE STRUCTURES
DOUBLE LAYER SPACE STRUCTURES
DOUBLE LAYER POST STRUCTURES
DOUBLE LAYER POST STRUCTURES
ADVANTAGES OF SPACE FRAMES:

 The shortage and increasing cost of qualified labour has favoured the

adoption of prefabricated and industrialised forms of construction.

Space structures can be assembled from simple, prefabricated units of
standard size and shape, which can be mass produced in the factory and
assembled easily and rapidly at site by semi-skilled labour.

 Because of the small size of the components, it is very easy to handle,

transport and erect these structures using conventional constructional
methods.
The network configuration of space structures accounts for its light weight.
For instance, the self weight per unit surface area of a 40 m diameter dome
is approximately 15 times larger for a concrete dome than for a latticed
metal dome. This is obtained with no sacrifice for rigidity.

 Large column free areas are usually required for industrial buildings,
sports stadia, swimming pools, exhibition halls, theatres and assembly
rooms. For very large column free areas they are very economical and
provide the only solution.
Space structures, especially skeletal frame works, when exposed, provide
an architecturally pleasant appearance.

 Due to their rigidity, they allow greater flexibility in layout and positioning
of columns. It is possible for some of the columns to be removed or have
their positions changed without damaging the structural integrity of the
framework.
DISADVANTAGES:
SIMPLICITY: The advantage of simplicity can, itself, be restrictive in
some forms of construction; it leads to the necessity of making more site
joints than is usual for a simple structure which spans in single direction.

COST OF JOINTS: The cost of the joints relative to the cost of materials
between the joints is invariably much higher that with plane structures.

COST OF ERECTION: Most of the space structures are completely

assembled at ground level and lifted either in one piece or in large units
into their final position. This requires more costly hoisting equipment than
required plane frames.
GRIDS:

Most of the skeletal systems met in practice consist of a network

of interconnected members. Due to this interconnection, concentrated
loads acting upon a certain part of a structure are resisted even by
members which are at a considerable distance from the point of
application of the load. The self weight of the roofs is much less than
other types of roofs. This considerable savings can also be achieved in
columns and foundations.
SINGLE LAYER GRID:
A Single layer grid is in fact a two dimensional structure, but is
considered because of its grid nature and certain characteristics which it has in
common with double layer grids, particularly the ability to disperse heavy
concentrated loads through out all the members of the grid. Grids in their
earliest form were an extension of the joist and girder framing system. By
adding intermediate girders, which are not supported by the columns at their
ends and including rigid connections, the single layer grid is formed.
 Grid may be defined as two or more sets of parallel beams
intersecting each other at right or oblique angles and loaded by an external
loading system composed of forces normal to the plane of the network or
moments whose axes line lies in this plane. This loading produces bending
and torsion in all the members. The major characteristic if grid construction
is the omni-directional spreading of the load as opposed to the linear
transfer of the load in an ordinary framing system.
 Grid behavior differs from dome behavior in that the load is carried
by bending rather than by primarily membrane like action. Thus the most
important type of rigidity in a grid is the bending rigidity. The other two
rigidities namely torsional and shearing rigidities will also influence the
behavior in a few cases. Thus for large grid spans, the bending stiffness can
most effectively increased by choosing a double layer system.
SINGLE LAYER GRID SYSTEMS:

 Single layer Plane Grids

 Single layer Space Grids

SINGLE LAYER PLANE GRIDS:
In rectangular grids the intersecting beams are perpendicular to
each other and to the supporting wall. In most practical cases these grids
are supported along the four sides. However, cantilevered grids can also be
used. Grids can be applied to a large variety of arrangements not only for
flat roofs but also for curved or folded roofs.
 Three way grids are extremely strong and lead to a very uniform
stress distribution. The four way grids are combinations of the
rectangular and diagonal grids. Though the rectangular grids are very
popular, the stress distribution of these grids is not uniform. A much
better distribution of the applied load may be obtained by using a
diagonal grid. This form of construction consists of beams forming an
oblique angle with the wall.
 The main difference between diagonal and rectangular grids is that
in the former the beams are of varying length L and therefore, even if all the
beams have the same flexural stiffness EI, the relative stiffness EI/L varies
considerably. Thus the shorter corner beams, owing to their high relative
stiffness, act as intermediate supports for the longer diagonal beams, which
thus become continuous beams on yielding supports, with overhangs at each
end. The mid span bending moments in the members of the diagonal grids
are considerably reduced.
 In practice the most economical layout for a steel diagonal grid is a
square grid divided into three or four equal parts. In larger spans it is most
economical to limit the number of panels onto which the grid is divided,
thus providing a larger spacing of the main beams of the grid and spanning
each panel with light simply supported secondary beams. This arrangement
produces equal loads on the main elements of the grids.
 Similar to the diagonal grids, many types of triangular grids have
also been used in practice. Most architects often use circular grids, like the
plane ring grids or a hexagonal circular grid.
 Due to the inherent rigidity of the grids, their structural height is
much less than that of conventional plane systems. The ratio of the
structural height to span is often 1 : 30 for rectangular grids and 1 : 40 for
diagonal grids. The single layer grid is appropriate for precast or in-situ
reinforced concrete or steel or concrete framing over 12 to 20m. The roof
can be carried out on continuous load bearing walls, the load being
transmitted downwards at frequent points by the structural ribs.
Alternatively a perimeter beam supported by columns may be used to carry
these loads. For greater economy, the roof may be designed to overhang the
supports, thus reducing mid span bending moments.
 Single layer steel grids are fabricated from either plain or
castellated I section or tubular members welded or bolted at the junctions
and at perimeter beams. Welded connections are usually preferred because
they often do not require any extra material or devices at the connections
and the joint appearance is also better in this case.
ADVANTAGES OF GRIDS:

 The structural depth required for given conditions can be considerably

reduced.

 Spans can be economically increased without increasing the structural depth

required by orthodox design for the same condition.

 Reinforced concrete floor slabs used in conjunction with steel diagrid floors

spans in both directions with supporting members on four sides, thereby

reducing the thickness of the slabs and effective saving in quantity and cost of

reinforcing steel and concrete required.

 There is a considerable measure of resistance to the damaging effect of direct hits

from bombs and other instruments of war. This is due to the fact that if any beam or

series of beams in diagrid structure is destroyed, the forces redistribute themselves

around the resulting gap, and the structure as a whole remains unimpaired. In any

ordinary structure, if one of the main girders is hit by a bomb and destroyed, the

collapse of a large portion of the structure is inevitable.

 The reduction in the dead weight of the construction results in the saving in the

cost of excavations and concrete for foundations.

 Heavy concentrated and or distributed loads can be easily and economically

accommodated without the provision of excessively deep and costly beams.

SINGLE LAYER SPACE GRIDS:

A development of the plane or flat grid as applied to the floors and

roofs is the spatial grid, which can be applied to roofs of all types and
shapes. The spatial grid is in effect of a flat grid folded once or several
times at the intersection points, the folds correspond to the ridges and
valleys in north light or folded plate roofs. The grid, instead of having a
series of intersecting straight beams, becomes a series of fully continuous
intersecting beams cranked at the folds. These folded grids, which are
mostly of welded construction, are usually of the diagonal type.
Braced barrel vaults or arched roofs can also be built using space grids. For
large spans, these roofs are reinforced with additional longitudinal
members. The fig shows how a space grid design can be advantageously
applied to large spans. Space grids are usually built from rolled – I sections
or angles. There is no need to use expensive built up sections even for large
spans. Very simple connections are only needed. Welding is most
commonly used.
DOUBLE LAYER GRIDS:

These systems are of special importance as they are frequently

used in roof construction. Successful attempts have been made in various
countries to apply them to floor construction in multi-storied buildings.

Double layer grids consists of two plane grids forming the top
and bottom layers, parallel to each other and interconnected by vertical
and diagonal members. Double layer grids may be latticed grids or true
space grids.
 In latticed grids, each set of bottom horizontal member is set in the
same vertical plane under the top horizontal member, as in normal lattice
trusses; but in space grids they do not lie in the same vertical plane.

True space grids consist of combination of prefabricated

tetrahedral, octahedral or skeletal pyramids having triangular, square or
hexagonal bases. The grid pattern of the top layer may be identical with that
of the bottom layer or it may differ.
 Several types of prefabricated double layer grids are available in
the market and their popularity is clearly increasing year by year. Mero,
Oktaplatte, Unistrut, Space deck, Space grid, Nenk, Pyramitec, Pyram roof,
Nodus, Triodetic, Tridilosa, Diamond truss, Taisei truss, Unibat, Takanaka
truss are just some of the trade names describing the various types of well
established commercial systems.
 These systems may be classified generally as nodular or modular.
Nodular systems are based on proprietary, piece-small, joints or
components. Whereas the modular systems consist of prefabricated modules
of various types and shapes (pyramidal or diamond) and assembled at site
by bolting them together.
TYPES OF DOUBLE LAYER GRIDS:

 Two-way lattice grid

 Three-way lattice grid

 Two-way space grid with square pyramids

 Three-way space grid with triangular pyramids

 Three way space grid with tetrahedral units

LATTICE GRIDS:

The two way lattice grids can be arranged either in rectangular or

diagonal fashion. In the first case the elements run parallel to the sides of the
opening. In the second they form normally an angle of 45o. Tests prove that
the diagonal grids possess much greater rigidity and therefore deflect less
than the rectangular grids.
ADVANTAGES OF LATTICE GRIDS OVER SPACE GRIDS:

1. More suitable for conventional fabrication techniques.

2. Without face diagonals their behavior is easily understood by many

practicing engineers.

3. Entire trusses in one direction may be prefabricated and erected as units,

the other trusses in the perpendicular direction acting as in fills.
 The main disadvantage comes from the lack of three dimensional
action, giving a higher unit weight. The number of members meeting at any
joint varies causing difficulties in using standard jointing schemes;
eccentricities may also be present at these joints.
 The good example of a two way lattice grid covering the huge
hangar erected in 1970 at London Airport for the Boeing 747 aircraft
constitutes one of the largest diagonal lattice grids in the world. The hanger
roof structure contains about 1500 tons of steel. The hangar is 34m high has
an overall length of 171 m. The clear door opening is 138 m wide by 23 m
high. The roof is supported by only 8 columns.
 The stress distribution in grids is greatly affected by the ratio to
the length of the structure to its width. Normally, more stress distribution
was found to be achieved in structures of square shape. Also the effect of
boundary conditions on member forces and deflections is small provided
that there is at least one intermediate support at the mid length of each
edge. The rigidity of joints helps to relieve excessive deformation in the
case of grids supported only at the corners; however the member sizes have
to be increased to take into account the additional bending moments.
TWO WAY SPACE GRIDS:

Double layer space grids can be considered to be made up of

octahedral, tetrahedral, pyramids, hexagons, triangles and so on, joined
together at joints or connected to one another by additional members to
form a space system. By far the most popular geometric solution used in
double layer space grids is the two way system referred to as the ‘square
grid’ or ‘square on square offset’. This geometry has been used by several
commercially available prefabricated systems like Unistrut and Nodus
 The grid shown in the figure may be considered geometrically as
upright square based pyramids assembled side by side having their apexes
connected by members parallel to the base members of the pyramid.
Similarly the square grid may be looked upon as alternate upright and
inverted square based pyramids having common face edges. Again at any
node we can construct the frame by having four tetrahedra radiating at right
angles as shown in the figure.
MODIFICATIONS OF THE SQUARE GRID:

The extra torsional rigidity may also be provided by means of

additional members which are called face diagonals. These members are
usually provided at the compression plane. These members may also be
provided in a number of ways.
 The modifications are important only for longer spans greater than
35 m or for grids with heavy applied loads. Economic consideration of a
suitable joint design to accommodate additional members may prevent such
modifications especially when standard prefabricated units such as the
Space Deck and Unistrut are used.
 The normal double layer grids are enclosed and stiffened along
their boundary by edge trusses or edge bracing members, which in practical
designs are of much more substantial size than the members framing the
main part of the grid. Hence Makowski carried out a parametric study of the
effectiveness of such bracings and concluded that for structures supported
along all the four sides, the influence of the bracing members along the
edges has little effect.

Contd.,
But for grids supported at the corners only, the influence is much
pronounced. He also observed that the effect of edge bracing is much more
pronounced on deflections. With the area of edge bracings doubled, the
deflection is reduced to nearly two thirds and with four times the area the
deflection is reduced only to half.
SPACE GRID WITH INTERNAL OPENINGS:

Du Chateau has developed what is now called Space Grids with

internal openings, these openings being chosen to balance the expected
loads by controlling the sparseness or density of members. In this system,
inverted pyramids (i.e., pyramids with their square bases in the top or
compression face) are removed together with the four tension members
connecting the apex. In regions of small loads this is usually done in every
alternate bay as shown in the fig. The internal openings thus obtained, can
be covered with translucent plastic skylights, providing the architect with a
simpler means of controlling the brightness and illumination inside the
building
 Another solution to the problem of support inadequacy is to change
the orientation of one plane relative to the other. It is possible to construct
space grids which have the length of compression member equal to 1/√2
times the length of tension member. These grids provide greater load
carrying capacity for the same weight as well as improved behavior
associated with face diagonals. This method can also be combined with the
technique of deleting pyramids as shown in the fig which is also known as
‘Square on larger square set diagonally’
ECONOMICS OF DOUBLE LAYER GRIDS:

 A compromise must be reached between the number of

subdivisions of the grid and the resulting size of the component parts.

 The type of covering to be used on the structure has a great

influence on the number of subdivisions to be adopted for the top layer of
the main grid.

 The depth of the grid depends on the total span of the structure
and obviously the subdivision adopted should not lead to the diagonal
bracing members in the grid having too steep or too flat a slope.
 Services accommodated between the top and bottom layers of the
grid require adequate support and a bottom grid with too coarse a mesh
would give rise to problems in supporting and fixing ducts, pipes etc.,

 The economical use of prefabricated systems leads to a logical

restriction on the number of different sizes of joint.
ADVANTAGES OF DOUBLE LAYER GRID:

Having greater rigidity, the double layer grids allow greater

flexibility in layout and certain changes in the positioning of columns.

It is also possible to remove some of the columns or to have their

position modified without damaging the structural integrity of the
framework.

Supports may be widely spaced and if necessary may be irregular.

The support may be at the top or at the bottom layer.
Double layer grids are usually built from simple prefabricated units, in
many cases of standard size and shape. Such units, mass produced in
factory, can be easily and rapidly assembled at site by semi skilled labour.

The high rigidity of double layer grids reduces the deflection of the
structure.

Due to high indeterminacy, buckling of the member under any concentrated

load may not lead to the collapse of the structure.
WATER DRAINAGE IN DOUBLE LAYER GRIDS

Usually flat double layer grids can be cambered in one direction to

give a cylindrical effect, or in two directions to give a spherical effect.

For grids supported at the bottom layer, camber is usually achieved

by an increase in the top chord module, whilst maintaining the original
bottom chord and bracing member dimensions.

For grids supported at the top layer the camber can be achieved by
a decrease in bottom chord module, whilst maintaining the original top
chord and bracing member dimensions.
TRIPLE LAYER GRIDS:

In double layer grids for spans over 100 m, deflection may become
the controlling factor. It appears that the economic limit for such systems is
in the region of 100m. However, there are often special cases when greater
spans may be desirable. There are also applications which require large span
grids to carry heavy concentrated loads and supported only at the corners.

In such cases, by logically extending a double layer grid to a triple

layer grid, the problem may be solved. The triple layer grid, consisting of
top, middle and bottom layers, interconnected together, forms a more rigid
system and can be used to cover still larger spans.
CONNECTORS:

The most critical component of any space structure are the joints
where the main structural members interconnect. The connector which is
used at these joints is thus the most important part of any prefabricated
system and the final commercial success relies on its effectiveness and
simplicity. The connectors usually occupy 10 – 25% of the total amount of
steel required for the space frames. In domes the angle between adjacent
members meeting at the joint will be small. If the dome is constructed with
spherical bolted joints, they have to be of large size to accommodate the
small angles between the members. Consequently the joints may occupy up
to 50% of the total steel required.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTORS:

The first commercially available connector system for skeletal

space frames was developed by Dr.Ing.Max Mengeringhausen who
developed the MERO system in the year 1942. The success of the MERO
system induced many designers to develop their own systems. Today more
than 100 prefabricated patented systems are available.
Akam Geobau Pyramitec
Bamford Elkar Russ system
Berlin Harley Space Deck
Cash Meticube Space Grid
Catena NODUS Tetra Grid
Dolleans Prato Zublin
Due to the large variety of connectors used in space skeletal systems, it is
very difficult to classify them. However they may be classified as welded
steel connectors, welded node connectors, screw connected node
connectors, pressed metal connectors, key connected node connectors and
connectors using gusset plates. In addition to these node connectors,
separate pyramids can be connected at their sides or corners to form space
grids.
Space deck system and Oktaplatte connectors are typical examples of
welded cast steel node connector. Mero and Nodus joint belong to the
screw connected node and Unistut system belongs to the pressed metal
node connector. Key connected nodes are provided by the Triodetic
system. Many examples of nodes using gusset plates exist. Space deck and
Unibat are examples of prefabricated pyramidal grid systems.
Tomatsuri classified these prefabricated systems into the following categories

Ball joint system

Socket joint systems

Plate joint systems

Slot joint systems

Shell joint systems

Nodular systems

Modular systems

Compositive systems
BALL JOINT SYSTEMS

The role of nodes in a space frame is to fix the nodes in their correct three
dimensional position and to resist the internal forces. The Ball joint system
consists of the following components: Ball joints, members and connection
mechanisms.

For example typical cross section of two MERO joints are shown in the fig.
Each of these systems consist of a ball joint, a tubular member and a bolted
connection between the ball joint and the member.
Tubular members are used due to the following reasons:

• A tubular member has a concentric profile and the second moment

of area in all the directions is the same. For a tubular member the buckling
load in all the directions is the same.

• It is possible to keep the outside diameter of the tubular members

as a constant and vary only the wall thickness of the tubes to take care of
the variation of forces in the members. This will simplify the construction
and the manufacture.
TYPES OF BALL JOINT SYSTEMS:

 The MERO System

 The Uzaykon Space Frame System

 The ORBA*HUB System

 ORONA System

 The KT Truss
The MERO System

The German MERO System (MERO Stands for

Mengeringhausen’s Tubular Construction) came on the market in 1943.
This was the first connector in the world to be used in industrialized
construction on the basis of mass produced components.

The basic component of this system has so far remain unchanged.

This system consists of nodes and tubes of different sizes. The basic
principle is that suitable nodes and tubes are chosen from the range
according to the load to be carried.
The nodes of MERO System consist of solid forged steel spheres: chosen
from a limited range. Threaded holes are cut in the sphere. Three types of
node exist: standard node, regular node and special node. The standard node
has 18 surfaces giving connecting angles of 45˚, 60˚, 90˚ and multiples of
these. The regular node which has 10 faces, has as many holes as are
required for the frequently recurring grids; the special node has bores at any
required angle. The minimum angle between two adjacent holes is 35˚.
These nodes are available in seven sizes. The smallest has a diameter of 50
mm. this gives 46 mm between any two parallel faces of the maximum
eighteen faces which forms the standard forged ball. The six other sizes
are 85, 110, 130, 150, 190 and 240 mm. In order to improve seating of the
spanner sleeve and enhance the quality of tolerance with respect to series
production, the sphere has flat surface around the threaded holes, which are
manufacturing by milling machines.
The MERO tubes or bars generally consist of tubular or square hollow
sections with truncated conical end fittings, which are welded to both ends
of the tubular members. These bars are connected to the threaded spherical
nodes by a central bolt with tightening sleeve as shown in fig. These bars
are capable of taking axial forces of 2 to 200t. The tube lengths are in the
ratio of 1 : √2 or 1 : √3. They are available in eight lengths: 0.5m, 0.707m,
1m, 1.25m, 1.414m, 2m, 2.5m and 2.828m.(Dimensions between ball
centres.
Essentials of MERO system was the creation of special machines, able to
produce with the utmost accuracy the ball junctions in which tapped holes
can be aligned to any required angle. All bars are fixed concentrically to the
nodes, meaning that their central lines meet exactly at the centre of the
sphere, whatever be the angle of entry. Threaded bolts provide a simple
connection between nodes and tubes; they also ensure that the structure can
be dismantled and erected elsewhere. The corrosion protection of the
members is done by hot dip galvanizing and by powder sintering.
The Uzaykon Space Frame System

A typical view and a section of the Uzaykon Space Frame system

is shown in Fig. This system is similar to MERO system except the
following reasons:

The nodes of the system are manufactured as hollow spheres and

The holes in the members, which are used for the insertion of
bolts, are covered with plastic range.
Socket joint systems:

The common feature of the previous systems is that the bolts are
screwed into ball joints. That is the direction of screwing is from the
member side to the joint. The other kind of spherical joint is referred to as
Socket Joint System in which the joints have one or two openings for the
insertion of the bolts and the bolts go from the joint into the end of the
members.
The NS Space Truss System:

The NS Space Truss System was developed by a Japanese

Company, the Nippon Steel Corporation. The components of this system
consist of socket joints, tubular members, bolts and washers. Two types of
socket joints are available referred to as ‘A type socket joints’ and
‘C type socket joints’. A type socket joints ranges from 110 mm to 290 mm
in diameter. The C type socket joints range from 190 mm to 430 mm in
diameter.
 Both the types of joints are forged and the holes are put by holding
them on the ground lathes and drilling by machines. The A type joint are
has two openings at top and bottom which are used for insertion of bolts and
for tightening them. The C type joint has one opening. Each joint has one
holes in such a way that the axes of bolts pass through the centre of the
joints. The members are composed of tubes and end cones with threaded
borings. The end cones are welded to the ends of the tubes. Washers with
concave surfaces on the joint side are placed between the member and the
joint for transmitting compressive forces
PLATE JOINT SYSTEMS
Mechanisms of components of plate joint systems

The components of a plate joint system consist of plate joints, members and
fasteners such as bolts and nuts. The MERO system is taken an example for
the ball system and the Unistrut system for the plate system. The member
forces in this figure are tensile. As seen in the figure, the bolt in the ball
system transmits the member force directly. On the other hand, the bolt in
the plate system transmits the axial force of the member as a shear force.
The Unistrut system

In 1955, the inventor of the Unistrut system, Mr. C.W. Attwood of the United
States, took up the idea that the most economical way of mass producing
lattice space systems would be to look for a single type of structure, having
just one type of node with bars of the same length and section. Such a system,
however, has its limitations. It permits only one geometric form and can
cover only limited spans. Two types of Unistrut systems based on modules of
1.52m and 1.21m are available and are suitable for roof spans ranging from
12.19m to 18.28m.
The basic system of the ‘Unistrut’ space frame consists of five parts :

1. The in-strut connector.

2. The out-strut connector

3. The strut

4. The bolt

5. The steel nut

THE POWER-STRUT SYSTEM

The power-strut system was developed by the American Company, the Van
Huffel Tube Corp. this system consists of the following five basic parts

1. The square module connector or the triangular module connector,

2. The strut for chord members,

3. The strut for the web members,

4. The slab head shoulder bolt and

5. The nut
SLOT JOINT SYSTEMS

A joint in this system is made up of a cylindrical piece that has slots around
its periphery. These slots receive the ends of the members which have the
male forms fitting to the slots of the joint. Each end of a member can be
inserted into the appropriate slot. The member is connected to the joint
without bolts, riveting or welding.

The slots and the ends of the members must be designed so that the forces
can be transmitted from the member to the joint or in the opposite direction.
In the triodetic system, every slot provides tension-compression grip.
The Triodetic system

The Canadian triodetic system was introduced in the market in 1955.

Basically the triodetic connector consists of a hub, usually an aluminium
extrusion, that contains slots or keyways, and members that have their ends
pressed or coined to match the slots. The member is inserted into the hub with
a slight pressure. Though this system was initially developed for aluminium
tubes, in 1966 this system was adopted for steel sections also.
A single connector can join many members radiating at almost any angle.
Ordinary tools like hammer are used to insert the structural tubes into the
hub keyways. Six different joint configurations are available. After
connecting all the members, the retaining washers are put on both sides of
the joint and are tightened by a bolt through the centre hole in the joint in
order to prevent the members from coming out.
SHELL JOINT SYSTEMS

The Oktaplatte system

The main elements of this system is a hollow sphere, made by welding

together two hollow forged hemi-spherical shells, reinforced by a disc
sandwiched between them. The bars of tubular sections are joined to
these nodes by fillet welds without any special end preparation.
The procedure for erection of this system is as follows:

1. Members are cut into design lengths.

2. The hemispherical shells and the disks are welded together to form joints.

3. Transportable assemblies, which consist of these tubes and joints, are

welded in the factory.

4. These assemblies are transported to the erection site.

5. They are assembled on the ground.

6. The structure is lifted up.

The Okta-S system

The Mannesmann Company developed the Okta-S grid in 1974, which is a

bolted version of the welded ‘Okta’ grid system (the letter S corresponds to
’Schraube’, the German word for bolt).

The Okta-S system consists of the following basic elements – prefabricated

spherical joints and circular hollow sections.

The hollow steel sphere is the same as that used in the Oktaplatte system.
Using appropriate jigs, flanged stubs are welded to these steel spheres, after
the sleeved nuts have been threaded over them.
The Nodus System

The British Nodus System was first introduced in 1971 by the

British Steel Corporation after market research, fabrication and performance
tests extending over several years. Normally, this system can be applied to
double layer grids. The node is formed of a pair of hemispherical cast iron
castings, clamped together with a high strength friction grip bolt. Four
toothed connectors are locked in between these casings, bearing on the root
diameter of the grooves in the casing.
 The main feature of the nodus jointing system is that all the main
fabrication work is carried out in the workshop. Hence only simple erection
techniques are necessary for the assembly of the structures at site. The joint
cannot be put together incorrectly so that assembly is foolproof. Because the
diagonals are connected by forked hinges, their slope and consequently the
height of the structure can be varied within limits. The nodus system
permits the construction of many different types of two-layer grid
arrangements, ranging from square-on square offset type to Diagonal on
square type.
The SPACE DECK system

The Space Deck system (England) came to the market in 1958. It consists of
inverted pyramids (semi-octahedron), fixed side by side. The square ‘bases’
of the pyramids which form the upper layer are made of rolled steel angle
sections 50mm x 37.5mm x 6.25mm thick angles are used for light units,
and 62.5mm x 50mm x 8mm thick angles are used for heavy units.

This system can be applied to double-layer square-on-square grids only. A

unit consists of four top chord angles, four diagonals and a forged boss.
These are welded together as a pyramidal unit in the factory, using special
jigs to ensure accuracy.
The procedure for erection of a Space Deck structure is as follows:

1. The assembly site is levelled.

2. The units are laid out upside-down so as to connect the main tie bars easily.

3. The top chords are joined together by bolts and each main tie bar is turned

into the bosses. At the same time, the lengths of the tie bars are adjusted.

4. Each assembly is turned over and then they are joined together by the bolts

and the secondary tie bars. These secondary tie bars also are adjusted.

5. After assembling a part of a structure on the ground, the structure is lifted up

to its final position.

SPACE- SERC JOINTING SYSTEM

The Structural Engineering Research Centre at Chennai, India has

developed a modular system for the construction of double layer grids. It is
assembled from pyramidal modular units (to form top and diagonal
members of the double layer grid when assembled) and planar modules (to
form bottom chords of the grid). The pyramidal units can be fabricated
using angle, channel or tubes. The top members are welded at the corners to
a vertical rectangular plate, to which a jointing piece with bolt holes is
welded at right angles.