Fundamentals of Music

KRS Murthy

The Wonder of the Human Ear (and the brain)

Human ear is unique, especially when combined with the
extraordinary processing power of the brain What is not linear may sound linear to the human ear. A very good example is the fact that our brains sense a sound pitch with respect to other sound pitches that are multiples of the power of 2 A pitch and other pitches that are two times, four times, eight times and so on (to include all powers of two) sound similar, except for recognizing that they are all part of a frequency scale. They are called harmonics in Physics. The frequency space between a frequency F and 2F is called an octave. The wonder that our ears can uniquely recognize this fact helps us to enjoy (or intuitively `understand') music.

Silence and Sound

Sound is not alone; silence is its companion. We would not differentiate or recognize that there is sound, unless it is
punctuated by silence. The reason is that our eye-brain combination is a very good differential amplifier. Therefore, we need silence for resetting our `differential amplifier'. Every time the sound is punctuated by silence, our ear-brain differential amplifier is able to sense the `ups and downs'. In fact, there is really nothing like silence in nature! There are all type of activities in the universe all the time It includes the earth, the local geography / space we live in with sound ambiance constantly existing. Our ear-brain combination has been gifted to conveniently `ignore' the background sound as noise All of us do not even realize that is always some background sound / noise, but think that there is silence.

Nonlinear Scale

The frequency space between successive octaves keeps

on increasing logarithmically (to the base of 2) as you go up the sound / music scale. Frequency space between 2F and F is F Where as the frequency space in the next octave is 4F2F=2F Further octaves 8F-4F=4F, 16F-8F=8F and so on. However. our ear-brain combination perceives the sound scale or the music scale as linear even.

The Swaras with in an Octave

The octave is divided into many parts, obviously in a non-linear

scale. For example, in a piano, which is made of discrete keys, the octave is made up of 12 keys. If you take any key of your choice and move up (or down) counting one key at a time (to include both white and black keys), you will reach the next octave when you reach the13th key. Remember to count the first key as 1, second key as 2, and so on. The 13th key is the starting point of the next octave. You can do this on an electronic keyboard, harmonium or accordion.

Non-Linear with in and between the Octaves

Even though I am not planning to jump into the concepts of Indian or

western musical scale yet, I want to illustrate a point here. Challenging some of the assumptions / foundations of Indian music. Let us take the Indian music scale from the perspective of the seven swaras The saptha (means seven): sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha. ni, (Sa the beginning of the next octave). The frequency space between ri and sa is smaller than the frequency space between ga and ri Which is further smaller than the frequency space between ma and ga, and so on. This is progressive through out the musical scale. The frequency space between ga and ri (for example) in any octave is smaller than the frequency space between ga and ri in the higher octave.

Non-Linearity in Music Instruments

We see the non-linearity in some musical instruments, where as we do not see them
obvious in others. In a piano, the keys are equally spaced The keys look in shape and color exactly same as you go from one end to the other. Of course, you hear it when you play. You will also notice it, if you look at the inner construction. The `continuous non-linearity is clearly visible in a guitar. The frets in a guitar become closer to each other as one moves up the scale This is in `inverse' to the sound generated as one moves up the scale. This is because the string length required to go up in frequency reduces as one goes up the scale. If you look at the flute construction, the size of the flute keeps reducing (nonlinearly) as you go up in the frequency.

With in the Octave

The starting point of the octave (or beginning of one octave scale)

is called the Shadja. Here the Devanaagari letter for `Sha' is different from the one used for the word Shankara. Unfortunately,English alphabets, being only 26, are inadequate to write Devanaagari (Sanskrit based) alphabets. An easy way for me is to give you examples from English words. The `sha' type of sound in the word `fiction'. This `Sha sound is produced close to the throat But NOT the guttural sound you hear in Urdu and also NOT at closer to the tip of the tongue.

Shadja The aadhaara shruthi

However, the swara Shadja is normally abbreviated as `sa' while
singing and writing notations. For English speakers, this has the same `sa' part of the sound as in `sun' or `son'. I may use the capital letter S or the small letter s in an exchangeable fashion. Sa is the reference swara, defining the octave Keep in mind that the octave is defined as soon as sa the starting point of the octave is defined or chosen. Twice the frequency of sa is the starting point of the next octave. In Indian music sa is called the aadhaara shruthi Shruthi in Sanskrit means a pitch In practice, the music teachers in India teach sa as THE SHRUTHI, leaving out the word aadhaara. I have a tendency to keep using the term aadhaara shruthi to refer to sa. Sometimes, I call the remaining swaras (for example - keys in a piano) with any one of the following words: shruthi, swara, note, key. Western musicians also refer to the starting point of the scale as `key', to imply. "Where does your scale start?"

Sanctity of the shruthi

It is very important to understand that the sa can be fixed at any point in the frequency scale depending on the choice of the artist (s) / musician(s). However, the complete composition (aalaapana or any type of composition) should maintain the same sa Most of the times, the complete concert is performed using the same sa. This sa is maintained, rather `religiously' throughout the composition or concert by the use of tamboora. Tamboora is a drone type of instrument providing the scale / octave reference to the artist(s). If the artist looses the aadhaara shruthi or actually `falls off' the scale, the artist is said to have `LOST THE SHRUTHI'. It is also considered as a disgrace by many artists, for their `basic' inability to maintain their performance to a specified scale. There are cases when some artists may `slip' (out of little lapse of control or even being physically and vocally tired) and consider that as a shame. It is almost as if a gymnast were expected to maintain `perfect' fitness and never slip out of the agility and routine. This discipline has become a tradition (and indeed a great tradition) in Indian classical music, by sanctifying the importance of Shadja and indeed the rigid framework of the complete scale.

With in the Octave

The octave is made up of 12 keys. The 12 keys / swaras are given names. Surprisingly and coincidently, the Western and the Indian
scales have basically seven names: Do Re Ma Fa So La Ti - Western Tradition Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni - Indian Tradition Seven English alphabets A, B, C, D, E, F, G - are used in the Western system These seven letters (representing the keys are called `natural.' Total of 12 keys are named, as shown in the table. They are assigned the remaining seven either as Sharp (denoted by #) or Flat (denoted by a small letter next to the Capital letter). For example, F# is the key higher to F Bb (pronounced as B Flat) is the key lower to B.

Karnaatak Western Hindustaani

Karnatak

Indian/Hindustani
sa Ri (Rishabha) R2 Ga1 (Gaandhaara) Ga 2 Ma 1 (Madhyama) Ma 2 Pa (Panchama) Dha 1(Dhaivatha) Dha 2 Ni 1 (Nishaadha) Ni 2

Western

North
sa ri komal ri tivra ga komal ga tivra ma komal ma tivra panchama dha komal dha tivra ni komal ni tivra

(Shadja) C D Flat D Sharp E Flat E Sharp F Flat F Sharp G A Flat A Sharp B Flat B Sharp

Shatshruthi samgeeta
The ancient Indian musicologists defined an octave, with much finer

graduations in it than the 12 swaras. Indian classical music has been conceived and modeled with the help of an Adhaara Shruthi 32 intermediate shruthis or swaras in the octave. This includes 6 shruthi-lets of each of the swaras Ri, Ga, Ma, Dha, Ni That is 6X5 = 30 plus the Sa and Pa Total 32 For reasons unknown, Panchama, denoted as Pa or P, has also been deemed unique. Panchama does not have any shruthi-lets or subdivisions, unlike the other swaras. Sa and Pa are called the Prakruthi swaras (meaning natural swaras). The other shruthi-lets of Ri, Ga, Ma, Dha, Ni are called Vikruthi swaras (meaning non-natural swaras).

Present Day samgeeta

The 6 shruthi-lets are based on the Shat-Shruthi

Sangeetha tradition. Shat (pronounced like `Shut') means six. However, it should be noted that the present day Indian classical music utilizes only three of the 6 shruthi-lets Ri, Ga, Dha and Ni have three shruthi-lets. Ma has only two. The meLakartha system, devised and documented by the pioneer Venkatamakhi, uses: S, R1, R2, R3, G1, G2, G3, M1, M2, P, D1, D2, D3, N1, N2, N3, S (Shadja of the upper octave).

Melakarta System

Venkatamakhi has systematized 72 meLakartha ragas These are divided into two halves of 36 raagas One set for M1, and the other for M2. Instruments like piano, electronic keyboard, accordion or harmonium use the Western scale simplification with S, R1, R2, G1, G2, M1, M2, P, D1, D2, N1, N2, S This is a total of 12 swaras (keys) including S; upper Shadja, denoted by bold letter S corresponds to the upper octave. The diagram shows the corresponding keys for western scale, with C used for Shadja. Please note that Indian scale uses relative positions, unlike the western scale using fixed keys.

What is a raaga?
A raga is reduced to a suite of loci of musical curves Based on swaras (chosen shruthis ) in specified

ascending and descending orders. The real raga is based on multitudes of musical curve combinations The curves of the raga are thus reduced to piece-wise linear approximations of the real / ideal musical curves. Definition and profile concepts of raga is complex

Salient points of raaga

Swaras (5, 6 or 7 taken at a time). A raga is defined by a scale of 5, 6, or 7 swaras. Only one of the swara-lets or shruthi-lets may be used in a raga; for
example, only one R is used. This rule is based on the current tradition. Murthy has developed and is currently documenting other variations possible, with logical explanations to each of his proposal. Murthy has also conjectured the possible reasons for the traditional thinking of the musicologists who have developed with their own assumptions.

Ascending and Descending orders

Ascending and descending orders are also

defined aarOhaNa and avarOhaNa The number of swaras in the ascending order could be different from the number in the descending order. For example, Mohana (Bhoopali in Hindusthani) has five swaras in the ascending order The descending order has the same five swaras. In general, ascending descending combinations could be 7-7, 6-6, 5-5, 7-6, 7-5, 67, 6-5, 5-7 or 5-6.

Linear or Non-Linear Profile

Some ragas have linear ascending and

descending orders. Others have non-linear or crooked (called vakra ragas) orders, defined as part of the raga profile. Please note that the non-linearity guideline ensures the flow characteristics / loci of the vakra raga.

Characteristic Musical Curves

Characteristic musical curves Defined as various combinations Further the combination groups of the swaras

are provided for guideline. Characteristic curves are provided as a guideline for the raga These curves are provided as recommendations to enable the musician to invoke the `personality' of the raga.

Anchor Swaras

Students of classical music are taught the Jeeva swaras. Swaras of the raga are used as anchors to illustrate the
outline of the raga. The ragas are also modeled to have prime anchors, called the Jeeva swaras or Vaadi swaras Sub-prime anchors, called the Hrasva swaras or Samvaadi swaras. This modeling of the ragas dictates that majority of the musical curves. During the expounding and rendition of the raga, the raaga should be centered around three important anchors: The Aadhara shruthi or the Shadja shruthi, the Vaadi and the Samvaadi swaras.

NYAASA SWARA

Nyaasa swara is the swara with which you finish an aalapana. Generally in aalapana, the nyaasa swara will be either Shadja or

Panchama. In raagas like Hindola, which does not have Panchama, it may be Madhyama also. Aalapana is composed of many units. During the elaboration of the raaga, the different phrases converge in a nyaasa swara. In other compositions like songs or kritis, the swara with which the composition is finished is the nyaasa swara. Broadly 'Nyaasa' means finish. Venkatamakhi, the author of Chaturdhandi Prakaashikam terms it as Vidari and Mukthaayi Especially to connote the last part of the presentation of the raaga, applicable to aalaapana and compositions / songs.

Gamaka
The transgression from a swara to the next one in the

scale during rendition and expounding of the raga should not be simply with the help of linear movement. Instead, the transgression should be performed employing a variety of musical curves. The transgression curves employed should ensure that the raga is clearly distinguishable from other ragas with similar loci. In fact, all the ragas are defined with distinction of characteristic transgression loci between its swaras. These transgressions are called Gamakas

Varjya Swaras
The only requirement is that the
transgression between the swaras should ensure that the locus of the musical curve does not dwell on Varjya swara This is the swara to be avoided as defined for the raga.

Suite of Musical Loci

Profile of the raga comes to life by capably
employing a suite of loci of musical curves provided as guidelines by examples and carried on by tradition used to expound the raga. It should be noted that musicians have improvised and discovered through explorations the different characteristics of ragas through out the past centuries, albeit some resistance from traditionalists.

Scientific Approach
The theoretical foundations of Indian classical music are very

scientific in nature. Even though most of the musicians do not understand / practice, and are unable to reinforce the scientific basics to their students. So the integrity of the musical knowledge, and its transmission to succeeding generations, has suffered from poorly realized and observed foundations. In addition, the tradition of classical music has failed to utilize many useful techniques available in the modern world. For example, two-dimensional graphs used in many facets of modern world have not been attempted for documenting, and as teaching aids, of Indian classical music. An X-Y plot with time on the X-axis, and frequency on the Y-axis would be very helpful for students to visualize the ascending / descending orders, musical curves and comparison of ragas. Talas can also be very well displayed on graphs. Computers, music synthesizers, and electronic keyboards with MIDI interface will be very handy in such endeavors.

Current Music Teaching

Teachers of Indian classical music have been

following the tradition of teaching the musical scale, and ragas based on discrete swaras. In effect, the teaching tradition is based on piece-wise linear approximation of the musical curves. The ragas are also taught with the Aadhara Shruthi used as the paramount anchor for the raga.

 An alternate approach would be to introduce the students to

Another Approach

a "tool kit" of musical curves with out any apparent Aadhara Shruthi. The curves would be taught as Shruthi-independent repertoire, to be used in various combinations to sing or play music. The tool kit is used to make the student functional. The theoretical foundations are taught after the student is taught the skills to reproduce musical curves, and also after gaining the ability to creatively expound with the foundations of the "tool kit".

Invoke the child in you

To illustrate the approach, let us understand the way a child learns

language. A child learns to speak by imitating sounds, words and expressions from other children and adults. We do not teach the child alphabets of a language first, and then words with meanings, and then sentences. It would be a strange world if we attempted such techniques at all. The child would be able to speak fluently, before it learns any alphabets. Script is used as a communication tool in school, work and throughout life. If we can imagine the words and phrases of a language to be similar to musical curves and their combinations in the world of music, my suggested approach becomes clear.

Murthys Diagram

This illustration in the diagram uses a clock analogy to

demonstrate a number coding concept for the raagas. The lower Shadja is denoted by 0 (Zero), where as the higher Shadja is denoted by 12. Raagas are coded for the swaras in the raaga with the number difference between the adjacent swaras. Murthy has created this with only two each of R, G, M, D, and N to make it easy for playing keyboard or harmonium. An expanded version can be created for a ShatSruthi system, a system with SIX each of R, G, M, D and N, with one Panchama.

Mohana Example
I have shown the middle, lower and upper octaves. The students may imagine and comprehend that the raaga (and its
profile remains intact) is same in the lower and upper octaves also, just that the scale is different. The diagram shows the corresponding keys for western scale, with C used for Shadja. Please note that Indian scale uses relative positions, unlike the western scale using fixed keys.
Example of Mohana (Bhoopali) is shown below: Out of the 12 key octave of S R1 R2 G1 G2 M1 M2 P D1 D2 N1 N2 S, only five notes S, R2, G2, P, D, S (Higher Octave) are used. It is a raaga with same swaras in ascending and descending orders. Mohana or Bhoopali Raaga S R2 G2 P D S 0 2 2 3 2 3 (12)

Shruthi Pallata
Please note that the total of the codes is always
12. Therefore we only need to code swaras other than Shadja! Mohana can be coded or noted as 022323 or simply 2232 leaving out the S (Shadja) boundaries. After doing Aadhaara Sruthi pallata (or rotation in the clockwise by one next swara), you can get the following combination of ragas: 2323 (SR2M1PN1); 3232 (SG1M1D1N1); 3223 (SG1M1PN1) (back to the starting point).

PHYSICS BEHIND MUSIC

It is very important to understand that the ratio of the

frequencies (pitch) for any swara in an octave (scale) or Sthaayee and the respectve swara in the lower ocative (scale) or Sthaayee is TWO In other words, the frequency doubles from one octave (Sthaayee) to the higher octave (Sthaayee) It is very important to realize that the frequency scale is NOT linear. This means that the arithmetic frequency differences between any key and its next key keeps on increasing as you move up the scale or pitch.

Human Ear and Non-Linearity

Human ear does not realize the non-linearity of the scale.

Therefore, we may assume (or feel that) that the Rishabha swara. For example, is divided into parts to make up R1 and R2 (or more parts in the case of shatshruthi system). Similarly, we may feel that Gaandhaara, Dhaivatha and Nishaadha are made of two or more parts, and that the Madhyama is made into two parts - Shudha and Prathi Madhyama (M1 and M2). It is very important to realize that the two Madhyamas are as distinct from each other as Panchama is from lower Dhaivatha. In summary, the twelve swaras, played on a keyboard, are distinct from each other, except for the non-linear frequency nature of the musical scale.

Nyaasa Swara
Examples: In aalaapana of raaga Abhogi, the artist ends
phrases in Madhyama: DMGRGM,SDRSDM....RGRRSRSSDSDM... M (Nadhyama) is nyaasa swara. Similarly, D (Dhaivatha) will be the nyaasa swara, if the phrases end in D, like: GMDSD, SRGSRSD,MDSDMGRGMD,GRSRDSDMD... The swara at which the aalaapana ends finally is also called a Nyaasa swara. Similarly, the swara at which a kriti, keerthana or any composition ends is the nyasa swara.

Western and Indian Scale

The table gives approximate comparisons between the

Western scale and the two Indian scales, with their names. I have shown C as an equivalent to Sa However, unlike the western system, a swara does not refer to a given key. You should read the table as "if we choose to use C as Sa". I have given the full name of the swaras: Ri =Rishabha; Ga = Gaandhaara; Ma = Madhyama; Pa = Panchama; Dha =Dhaivatha; Ni = Nishaadha.

Special Gift of the Human Ear

magnified as one goes up the scale as `linear'. Therefore a musical curve in any octave is perceived similar as the one higher up in scale, even though it is a magnified version. Let us think of an analogy. A mountain range starting from a point close to a viewer and spread away from the viewer with many mountains of different sizes may look similar in shape. A small mountain closer may look similar in size (and shape) to a larger mountain farther away from the viewer. This ability of pattern recognition and especially `automatic' size and shape adjustment is probably the ability of the brain common to processing information from all our sense organs like ear, eye, tongue, skin and nose. Thanks for the gift of the brain's differential amplifier like post processing, for otherwise, we could not function in this world as well as we are coping now.

We recognize sound / music patterns or curves which are really logarithmically

In summary, the brain enables us to appreciate the combination of the sound and silence, punctuating each other, and also the frequency curves mapped from a logarithmic scale to a liner scale; the result is music. Music is nothing but dancing sound variations; many times it is a choreography of multitudes of sounds (tones the personality of the sound) in the pasture of our ear-brain platform / stage.

Bilawal Dhaat

Khamaaj Dhaat

Kafi Dhaat

Aasaavari Dhaat

Bhairavi Dhaat

Bhairav Dhaat

Kalyaan Dhaat

Maarva Dhaat

Poorvi Dhaat

ToDi Dhaat

More thaats
There are problems whenever one is talking about the

number of thaats. Generally only ten are acknowledged; twenty are in common usage. 32 are possible given present concepts of scale construction. This has created a lot of confusion in north Indian pedagogy. Three common scales which are not part of the ten thaats are Ahir Bhairav, Charukesi, or Kiruvani.

Regions of Indian Styles

Mohana - Bhoop

Raga Mohana Raga : Mohana Mela: Harikambhoji - Mela 28 Other Names: Mohanam; Bhoop (Hindustani); Regupti ( Tamil Pan) Arohana: S R2 G2 P D2 S || S Ri Gu Pa Dhi S Avarohana: S D2 P G2 R1 S || S Dhi Pa Gu Ra S References: Sancharas: DP,,GPD_PGR RGPDSD GPD_S RSSDDPG GPD_ PDS DSR_GRGPGRS DGRGSR DRSD_ PGPDSD_P GPD_PGR GRPGR_S-RSd_Pd_s

Mohana - Bhoop
Rasa: Vira, Kroda, Challenge

Time:Night Jeeva Swara: R, G, D Amsa Swaras: G, P Graha Swaras : G, P, D Special Considerations: Gamakas for all swaras. Found in Chinese, Japanese and Swedish music Murchanakaraka Ragas: R-> Madhyamati; P -> Hindolam; G -> Sudha Saveri; D -> Udayaravichandrika