PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

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Instrument
A device for measuring the magnitude of a physical variable. All sensing is using physical measurement of phenomena. Sensor developments have been greatly influenced by the progress in solid state electronics. Solid state electronics and chip technology have assisted in miniaturization of various sensors.

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 For example, gas chromatography column is available on a small silicon wafer. Human judgment is always the hardest thing to duplicate in any machine. However, advantages of inline sensors include real-time analysis and process control, improved product uniformity and quality, and conversion of batch operations to semi-continuous or fully continuous processes.

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Terminology
Span: the range of measured variable that a sensor can measure. Least-count: the smallest difference of measured variable that can be detected by a sensor. Readability: the closeness with which the scale of a sensor can be read in analog output. A sensor with a 30-cm scale would have a higher readability than a sensor with a I5-cm scale and the same span. In digital output, readability will be the relative size of the letters.

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Terminology
Sensitivity: the change in output of the sensor with the unit change in input variable to be measured; e.g., if a I-mV recorder has a 5-cm scale length, its sensitivity would be 5 cm/ mV.

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Sensor Accuracy
Accuracy: the deviation of the output of a sensor from a known measured input. Accuracy is usually expressed as a percentage of full scale reading e.g., a 100-kPa pressure transducer having an accuracy of 1 % would be accurate within: 1 kPa over the entire range.

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Sensor Accuracy
Measured variable: absolute measured value Percentage of full-scale(FS) reading

Percentage of instrument span

Percentage of actual reading
Precision: the ability of a sensor to reproduce a certain output with a given accuracy.

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Sensor Accuracy
The difference between precision and accuracy: Consider the measurement of a known temperature of 100C with a certain transducer. Five observations are recorded, and the indicated values are 103, 105, 103, 105, and 103C. These values show that the accuracy of the transducer is 5% (5C),

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Contd
and its precision is 1%, since the maximum deviation from the average reading 104C is only 1C. The transducer can be calibrated and then can measure temperature within 1C. Thus accuracy can be improved by calibration up to, but not beyond, the precision of the transducer

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Contd
Threshold: If the input of a sensor is very gradually increased from zero, there will be some minimum value below which no output can be detected. This minimum value is the threshold of the sensor. Resolution: the input increment that gives some small but definite numerical change in the sensor output. Thus resolution is the smallest measurable change, while threshold is the smallest measurable input.

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Contd
Hysteresis: A sensor exhibits hysteresis when there is a difference in readings depending on whether the values of the measured variable are approached from above or below. Linearity: the maximum deviation of any calibration point from the linear relationship. This may be expressed as a percent of the actual reading or as a percent of the full scale reading.

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Contd
Error: a deviation of the measured value from the true value. Errors are divided into three broad classes-gross, systemic, and random. The gross errors arc mostly human errors such as incorrect reading, adjustment, and application of instruments. Loading effects, due to improper circuit impedance, also give this type of error.

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Contd
Systemic errors are related to the functioning of the instruments and their mechanical or electrical structure and calibration errors, and to the effect of environment on the equipment performance. These errors related to the instrument can be avoided or reduced by proper calibration of the instrument, and by selecting a suitable instrument

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Contd
Environmental errors are reduced by using the instrument at the recommended conditions of temperature, relative humidity, pressure, etc. Random errors are due to unknown causes. They can be reduced by proper design of the instrument, and by taking more readings and using statistical methods to correct the observations.

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Pressure
Definition: Force per unit area Absolute pressure Atmospheric pressure Differential pressure Gauge pressure Head pressure

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Pressure Definition

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Standard pressure
Pressure of one normal (standard) atmosphere 101325 Pa / 101.325 kPa
1013.25 mbars 14.696 psia 29.921 in.Hg / 760 mmHg @ 0oC (32oF)

407.5 in.H2O / 33.958 ft.water @ 20oC

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Sensor Properties

Repeatability refers to the ability of a pressure sensor to provide the same output with successive applications of the same pressure.

Hysteresis is a sensor's ability to give the same output at a given temperature before and after a temperature cycle.

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Pressure Sensor
The basic pressure sensing element A: C-shaped Bourdon tube B: a helical Bourdon tube C: flat diaphragm D: convoluted diaphragm E: capsule F: a set of bellows

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Bourdon tube
A sealed tube that deflects in response to applied pressure. Provide a fairly large displacement (except diaphragms) Useful in mechanical gauges and for electrical sensors that require a significant movement.

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Potentiometric Pressure Sensors

Use a Bourdon tube, capsule, or bellows to drive a wiper arm on a resistive element. Inexpensive, but subject to repeatability and hysteresis errors

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Inductive Pressure Sensors

Linear Variable Differential Transformer pressure sensor drives a moving core that varies the inductive coupling between the transformer primary and secondary

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Capacitive Pressure Sensors

Typically use a thin diaphragm as one plate of a capacitor. Applied pressure causes the diaphragm to deflect and the capacitance to change. The change in capacitance may be used to control the frequency of an oscillator or to vary the coupling of an AC signal through a network.

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Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors

Bi-directional transducers capable of converting stress into an electric potential and vice versa. Consist of metallized quartz or ceramic materials. Dynamic effect, providing an output only when the input is changing

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Strained Gauge Sensors

A strain gauge measures the strain in a material subjected to applied stress
Signal due to deformation of the material is small, on the order of 0.1% of the base resistance. Used a metal diaphragm with strain gauges bonded to it.
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Semiconductor strain gauges

Widely used, both bonded and integrated into a silicon diaphragm, because larger (one order of magnitude) response than metallic strain gauge.

Piezoresistive effect: Change of resistance, when the crystal lattice structure of silicon is deformed by applied stress.

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A silicon bar can be bonded to a diaphragm to yield a strain gauge sensor with a relatively high output.

IC processing is used to form the piezoresistors on the surface of a silicon wafer to fabricate an integrated piezoresistive pressure sensor

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Manometer
A simple pressure standard May be used for gauge, differential, and absolute measurements with a suitable reference.

Useful mainly for lower pressure work because the height of the column of mercury will otherwise become unwieldy.
The difference in column heights gives the pressure reading

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THANK YOU

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