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Part II
Line Coding and Pulse Shaping
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 2
Statement of the Problem
On the way from transmitter to the
receiver, we are now here
Two questions:
How to pick pulse sequence?
How to pick pulse shape?s
Source
encoder
Analog message
1 0 0 1 1...
?
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 3
Picking a pulse sequence:
line coding
There are numerous ways we can convert
a string of logical 1s and 0s to a sequence
of pulses. But what are the ground rules?
Example: convert 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
0 0
1
0
1 1
0
1 OR
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 4
Line coding concerns
Here are what we have to know before
making a selection
Presence or absence of DC level
Spectrum at DC
Bandwidth
Built-in clock recovery
Built-in error detection
Transparency
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 5
DC level
Some line codes have a DC level some
dont. DC levels are inherently wasteful of
power. Also, their DC levels will be
stripped over links with transformers or
capacitor coupled repeaters
1 1 1 1
0 0
1
0
1 1
0
1
DC level
0 DC
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 6
Spectrum at DC
This is related to the DC level. Generally
we want to have the spectrum to be 0 at
f=0. Finite spectrum at f=0, indicates
partial presence of a DC level
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 7
Bandwidth
A most critical component. We must be
able to compare the bandwidth taken up by
different line codes while transmitting a
fixed number of pulses per second.
B B
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 8
Clock recovery
Knowing the beginning of pulses at the
receiver is critical in bit detection.
Otherwise you dont know where you are or
what you are looking at. Can you tell where
a pulse ends and where the next one
begins?
Received pulses
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 9
Error detection
It is possible to come up with smart pulse
sequences that can signal to the receiver
there is something wrong
For example, let consecutive 1s be
represented by opposite polarity pulses
1 1
channel
1
1
It is not possible to have two
neighboring pulses of the same
polarity: It violates the encoding rule
There must be a detection error
transmitted
received
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 10
Transparency
Data bits are often random but at times
they my bunch up and form unbroken
strings of 0s or 1s. In such cases
statistics of pulse pattern may change
Look at the following two cases:
1
0
1 1
0
1
0 0 0 0
zero DC Non zero DC
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 11
Specific line codes
We will cover the following line codes
Unipolar
Polar
Split phase or Manchester
Bipolar or AMI (alternate mark inversion)
Coded mark inversion(CMI)
High density bipolar 3 (HDB3)
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 12
Unipolar (on-off)
Unipolar (return-to-zero, RZ)
Digit 0 is represented by NO PULSE
Digit 1 is represented by a half width pulse
Unipolar (non RZ)
Digit 0 is represented by NO PULSE
Digit 1 is represented by a full width pulse
1
0
1
0
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 13
Unipolar examples
The bit sequence is
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Unipolar RZ:
Unipolar NRZ:
Bit
length
Bit
length
Half-width pulses
Full width pulses
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 14
Unipolar properties by
spectral analysis
Let the pulse rate be R. Pulse width is
T=1/R
R 2R
Unipolar NRZ
2R R
Bandwidth=pulse rate
Bandwidth=2xpulse rate
Clock signals
Unipolar RZ
0 0
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 15
Could we have predicted the
bandwidth?
Nyquist gave us this inequality: B
T
>R/2, i.e.
need at least R/2 Hz to transmit R pulses
per sec.
For unipolar we are transmitting R pulses
per second. Unipolar spectrum gives us
two answers
B
T
=R (NRZ)
B
T
=2R(RZ)
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 16
Why the difference?
Nyquist gives us the minimum possible
bandwidth. Obviously, neither of the two
signaling arrangements reach that goal
The reason is the choice of the pulse
shape. We are working with square pulses.
To meet Nyquists goal, we have to use
sinc pulses. More on that later
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 17
Importance of clock
component
If a unipolar NRZ signal is put through a
narrowband bandpass filter centered at R,
then a sinusoidal signal emerges that can
be used for symbol timing
1/R 2R R
Clock signals
0
BPF
f
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 18
Polar
Encoding rule:
1 is represented by a pulse
0 is represented by the negative of the same pulse
Example: encode 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
RZ
NRZ
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 19
Polar spectrum
Identical to unipolar except for the
absence of clock component at pulse rate
R 2R
2R
NRZ
RZ
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 20
Split phase or Manchester
coding
Encoding rule:
1 is represented by -->
0 is represented by-->
Encode 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Bit length
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 21
Manchester code properties
There are some nice properties here
Zero DC because of half positive/half negative pulses
Transparent: string of 1s and zeros will not affect DC levels
No DC at f=0 but large bandwidth and no
clock
2R R
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 22
Bipolar or AMI
Bipolar or alternate mark inversion(AMI)
used in PCM is defined by
O ----> no pulse
1------> pulse. Sign of the pulse alternates
Example: 1 0 1 1 1
1
1 1
1
0
Alternating polarity
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 23
Advantages
AMI has several nice properties including
null at DC. It also avoids signal droop
over AC coupled lines
Result of a long string of
1s if polar format is used
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 24
Bipolar spectrum
Bipolar can be of RZ or NRZ variety. As
usual, the NRZ has half the bandwidth of
RZ
R
2R
R/2
f
f
RZ
NRZ
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 25
HDBn: G.703 standard for 2,8
and 34 Mbits/sec PCM
High density binary n line code is just like
bipolar RZ with the following modification:
When the number of continuous zeros exceeds n, usually 3,
they are replaced by a special code
A string of 4 zeros is replaced by either
000V or 100V. V is a binary 1 with the sign
chosen to violate the AMI rule. This will let
the receiver know of the substitution
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 26
HDB3 example
Le the sequence be 10110000101. Here is
the corresponding HDB3 coding
V
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Must alternate in polarity
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 27
Coded Mark Inversion(CMI):
G.703 for 140 Mbits/sec
CMI is a modified polar NRZ code. Pulses
corresponding to 0s stay put but 1s
alternate in polarity. In polar they had a
fixed assignment
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 28
CMI spectrum
Similar 3-dB bandwidth to bipolar-NRZ but
has a clock component at the pulse rate
R 2R
f
Pulse Shaping
Choosing the right pulse for the job
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 30
What is the problem?
What we just went through was about
picking a pulse sequence. We have not
said anything about the pulse shapes that
make up the sequence
Square pulses are by no means the best
shapes to use
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 31
Criterion for picking pulse
shapes
Whatever line coding you choose, the
shape of the pulse greatly affects signal
properties. The two we are most
concerned with are
Bandwidth
Interference with adjacent pulses
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 32
ISI:
intersymbol interference
Modern communication systems are
mostly interference limited, not noise
limited
ISI is a phenomenon in digital signaling
that arises from the interaction of the
signal and communication channel
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 33
How is ISI created?
There are a variety of reasons (bandlimited
channels, multipath, fading). The end
result is something like this
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
ISI causes detection error
0s may look like 1s and
vice versa
transmitted
received
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 34
A note on notation
We frequently talk about data rate either in
terms of bits/sec(R
b
) or pulses/sec(R). They
are not the same because one pulse may
represent several bits.
Similarly, we may talk about bit length
(T
b
=1/R
b
) or pulse width(T=1/R)
We will use bit notations but results are
applicable to pulses as well
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 35
Bandlimiting effect
Take square NRZ pulses at R
b
bits/sec. The
nominal pulse bandwidth is then R
b
Hz.
Lets investigate passage of this pulse
through an ideal lowpass channel limited
to R
b
/2 Hz
1/R
b
?
H(f)
R
b
/2
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 36
Output in the frequency
domain
In the frequency domain, input is a sinc.
Rb
R
b
transmit
receive
Rb/2
Clearly, the received pulse
is severely bandlimited compared
to its original shape. How does
it look like in time?
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 37
Distorted pulse in time=pulse
dispersion
As a result of bandlimiting, we witness
pulse dispersion, i.e. spreading
transmitted
received
Tb/2
Tb
time
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 38
Notion of sampling instant
A digital receiver works on the basis of
samples taken at periodic intervals.
These samples are either taken directly
from the pulse (not likely) or after some
preprocessing(filtering, equalization)
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 39
Dispersion impact on a pulse
train
We never send just one pulse. We send a
pulse sequence such as 1 1 1...
Sampling instants
Instead of picking up a sample from
the current pulse, we are picking up
samples from adjacent samples as well
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 40
How to handle ISI?
ISI can be handled at two points, 1):
source (by pulse shaping) and /or 2):
equalization at the receiver
We will cover both but first look at ISI
elimination by pulse shaping
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 41
What did Nyquist say about
ISI?
He said we need not have zero ISI
everywhere. In fact adjacent pulses may
have substantial overlap
All we need to have is zero ISI at the
sampling points where bit detection is
performed
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 42
A typical scenario
Detecting bits at the receiver entails two
main steps
Sampling of the received signal at the appropriate time
Decision making
Decision
device
0
1
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 43
Nyquists first criterion for
zero ISI
Nyquist defined zero ISI as the absence of
ISI at sampling instants ONLY. Pulses can
overlap each other at all other times with
no ill effects
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 44
Pulse specification
This is what we want: transmit pulses at
the rate of R
b
bits/sec such that when the
line is sampled at intervals 1/R
b
sec., we
experience NO ISI
Generally speaking, this is not possible
because pulses spread out as they pass
through channel
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 45
But there is a way
Of all the candidate pulses, there is one
that satisfies this seemingly difficult task.
It is , you guessed it, a sinc.
To transmit R
b
bits/sec. we should use
pulses of the form
p(t)=sinc(R
b
t)
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 46
How does a sinc work?
A sinc pulse has periodic zero crossings. If
successive bits are positioned correctly,
there will be no ISI at sampling instants.
Sampling instants
No ISI
Nadjacent pulses
Go to zero hence no ISI
Tb
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 47
Another distinction for sinc
We know that sinc(R
b
t) has bandwidth of
R
b
/2 (Fourier table). Therefore, to transmit
R
b
bits/sec a bandwidth of R
b
/2 would
suffice
We learned before that this is the minimum
transmission bandwidth
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 48
Nyquists 1st criterion for
zero ISI:summary
To transmit data at R
b
bits/sec use pulses
of the form sinc(R
b
t)
In addition to zero ISI, this pulse requires
minimum possible bandwidth of R
b
/2
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 49
Ideal Nyquist channel
Ideal Nyquist channel of bandwidth R
b
/2
can support R
b
bits/sec
R
b
/2 is called the Nyquist bandwidth
Rb/2
1/R
b
Nyquist channel
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 50
Example: PCM voice channel
Remember that to transmit one voice
channel, 8-bit PCM generates 64 Kb/sec.
Recommend a pulse generating zero ISI
The desired pulse is
p(t)=sinc(R
b
t)=sinc(64000t)
Required bandwidth is B
T
=R
b
/2=32 KHz
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 51
Problems with sinc
Sinc pulses are nice but are not realizable.
Why? Because sinc is the impulse
response of an ideal lowpass filter which
itself cannot be built
H(f)
H(f)
sinc
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 52
Keeping the best of both
worlds
What we want is a pulse that is 1):
realizable and 2): has the same desirable
ISI property of a sinc
To make a sinc realizable, we begin by
smoothing the edges of its squared-off
spectrum
This process is called roll-off
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 53
Raised cosine spectrum
We can smooth the sinc spectrum by the
smoothing parameter o. The cost is
increased bandwidth
f
o=0.5
o=0
o=1
R
b
/2
R
b
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 54
Excess bandwidth and roll off
factor
Rolling off generates increased bandwidth
beyond Nyquists. Roll-off factor o is given:
a =1 f
1
R
b
/ 2 ( )
=
0 f
1
= R
b
/ 2 original Nyquist' s bandwidth
1 f
1
= 0 full roll - off
o=0
R
b
/2
f
1
Excess bandwidth
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 55
Bandwidth of raised cosine
pulse
Raised cosine bandwidth varies according
to the roll-off factor. Zero roll-off gives the
Nyquist bandwidth. Full roll-off doubles it
B
T
=(1+o)(R
b
/2)
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 56
Raised-cosine pulse in the
time domain
When the spectrum of sinc is smoothed
out, it naturally affects the shape of the
pulse in the time domain. The result is a
modified sinc given by
p t ( ) = sinc R
b
t ( )
cos tot ( )
1 4o
2
R
b
2
t
2
Keeps zero crossings
at t=multiples of R
b
Sinc, a=0
a=1
t
1/Rb
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 57
Properties of raised-cosine
Raised cosine is very much sinc-like, i.e.
Has zero crossings at multiples of 1/R
b
Has additional zero crossings between the old ones
Raised cosine also decays faster
Side lobes are smaller than sinc
All of the above properties help to diminish
ISI
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 58
Special case: full raised
cosine
For o =1 we get a special case called full
raised cosine pulse. For a bit rate of R
b
,
this pulse requires a bandwidth of R
b.
R
b
/2 R
b
o =0
B
T
=(1+1)R
b
/2=R
b
o =1
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 59
Raised-cosine pulse:
full roll-off
In the time domain, raised-cosine pulse
with full roll-off(o =1 ) is given by
Properties:
Zero crossings at multiples of 1/2Rb (twice the sinc) . You
can find ZCs by setting argument of sinc to 1, 2 etc
Bandwidth is twice the sinc at B
T
=R
b
p t ( ) =
sin c 2R
b
t ( )
1 4R
b
2
t
2
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 60
Example: 64 Kbits/sec line
Compare shapes and spectra of candidate
pulses below for ISI free transmission
Square pulse
Sinc pulse
full roll-off raised cosine
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 61
Square pulses:poor ISI
To transmit data at 64 KB/sec, we need
pulses of 1/64000 sec (if NRZ)
T
b
=1/64000 sec
B
T
=1/T
b
=64 KHz
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 62
Other pulses
Sinc pulse corresponds to a roll-off factor
of zero. Therefore,
B
T
=(1+ o)R
b
/2=32 KHz
For a full roll-off raised cosine pulse, o=1
B
T
=(1+ 1)R
b
/2=64 KHz
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 63
Issue of bandwidth efficiency
The singular property of a digital signaling
scheme is its bandwidth efficiency
measured in bits/sec/Hz and found by the
ratio p=R
b
/B
T
p measures how many bits/sec we can
pump in one hertz of bandwidth
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 64
Bounds on p
For a sinc we have B
T
=R
b
/2. Therefore
p=2 bits/sec/Hz
For a full roll-off pulse B
T
=R
b
. Therefore
p=1 bit/sec/Hz
For example, in a bandwidth of 4 KHz, the
fastest we can signal without ISI is 8 KHz
using sincs
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 65
An interesting question
We know pretty well what pulse we need
to work with for ISI-free transmission
The problem is we need sinc or raised
cosine characteristic at the receiver
The question then is what kind of pulse we
need to send in order to end up with an ISI-
free pulse?
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 66
Channel model
Here is what we are looking at
The overall response must be such that the
received pulse is ISI-free, e.g. sinc
H
N
(f)=H
T
(f)H
ch
(f)H
R
(f)
Transmit
filter
Channel
Receive
filter
ISI-free pulse
input
H
N
(f)
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 67
Nyquist channel
What we need is for H
N
(f) to have a raised
cosine response giving rise to raised
cosine pulses at the receiver
Assuming perfect channel, H
ch
(f)=1, we can
split the raised cosine response between
H
R
(f) and H
T
(f)
H
T
f ( ) = H
R
f ( ) =
cos
2
tf
2R
b
|
\
|
.
| f s R
b
0 else
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 68
Nyquists channel response
Received pulses will have this spectrum
H
N
(f)=H
T
(f)H
R
(f)
frequency
R
b
R
b
/2
0.5
1
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 69
Overall response
This is the equivalent model we now have
H
N
(f)
(raised cosine)
1 1 -1 -1 -1 1
Transmitter
Receiver
a
n
o t nT
b
( )
n
a
n
= 1,1 { }
a
n
n
h
N
t nT
b
( )
EQUALIZATION
Dealing with ISI after the fact
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 71
Canceling ISI
We can eliminate ISI before it has
happened (pulse shaping) or after it has
happened (equalization)
The problem with pulse shaping is that
channel characteristics, hence pulse
shapes do not remain constant.
We need a mechanism to cancel ISI at the
destination
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 72
Illustrating the problem
The delicate pulse shaping at the
transmitter is messed up by the channel.
ISI is back
T
b
ISI
Zero crossing has moved hence ISI
with the adjacent pulse
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 73
What is equalization?
Equalization is a process by which a
number of received pulses are processed
in order to null ISI, i.e. drive it to zero, at
the sampling point
In effect we want to create an ideal
channel; flat frequency response and linear
phase response. The delicate pulse
shaping at the transmitter is therefore
preserved
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 74
Setting the stage
Let p(t) be the current pulse sampled at
t=T
b
. As a result of channel, zero crossings
do not coincide with sample times
Sample time=T
b
Sample time
ISI
Current pulse
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 75
Zero forcing equalizer
What we need to do is to somehow force
the nonzero tails of the adjacent pulses to
zero, therefore eliminating ISI at the
sampling point
This can be accomplished by a weighted
sum operation implemented by a digital
filter
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 76
What do we want?
Here is what we want
Equalizer
p (t) p
o
(t)
p
o
nT
b
( )=
1 n = 0
0 n = 1, 2, , N
T
b
2T
b
p
o
(t)
received
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 77
ZF equalizer as a digital filter
T
b
T
b
T
b
W
-N
W
-N+1
T
b
W
o
T
b
W
N
E
p(t)
input
p
o
(t) = W
k
p t kT
b
( )
k=N
N
H f ( )e
j 2tft
dt
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 95
Instantaneous signal power
at t=T
Evaluating g(t) at t=T and squaring it
g
o
T ( )
2
= H( f )G( f )e
j2tfT
dt
2
Notice t is replaced
By T
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 96
Matched filter output noise
power
Assuming white noise coming in,
Question now is what is output noise
power?
H(f)
f
No/2
White noise spectrum
S
w
(f)
S
N
(f)=(No/2)|H(f)|
2
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 97
Average output noise power
Average power of any random process is
the area under its power spectral density
function. Therefore,
E n
2
(t)
{ }
= S
N
( f )df =
N
o
2
H( f )
2
df
H(f)
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 98
MF output SNR
We are now in a position to write the
output SNR of matched filter
Known: pulse spectrum G(f), noise PSD
N
o
/2, sampling time T
Unknown: filters response H(f)
n =
H( f )G( f )e
j 2tfT
df
2
N
o
2
H( f )
2
df
20t | |
2
dt +
0
0.5x10
3
0.02 20t | |
2
dt
0.5x10
3
10
3
= 0.33 10
7
W- s
SNR =
2E
N
o
=
2 0.33 10
7
10 10
9
= 6.67 = 8.2dB
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 116
Designing MF for two pulses
In all likelihood, we will be using at least
two pulses in a digital comm system!
If they are of different shapes, how would
you design a matched filter receiver?
1
0
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 117
Solution 1: filter bank
Build a filter bank, each branch matched to
one pulse
h(t)=p
1
(T-t)
h(t)=p
2
(T-t)
Pick larger
0
1
p
1
(t)
here decision is in favor of p
1
or digit 0
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 118
Solution II: use a single MF
It can be shown that when two pulses are
involved, a single filter matched to the
difference pulse p
1
(t)-p
2
(t), is the optimum
filter
For 0
For 1
A
-A
2A
h(t)
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 119
Illustration
Lets see what appears at the output of the
single matched filter
A
-A
2A
2A
2
T
b
-2A
2
T
b
1s and 0s are clearly
distinguished
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 120
Nonoptimum filters
What happens if we just use a garden
variety lowpass filter instead of the
optimum matched filter?
Is there a loss in SNR and how much?
Is the resulting hardware simplicity worth
it?
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 121
RC filter:signal out
Lets pick the simplest of all lowpass
filters
R
C
H( f ) =
1
1+ j2tfRC
p(t)
p
o
(t)
p
o
t ( ) = A 1 e
t
RC
|
\
|
.
|
0 s t s T
b
A
p
T
b
p
o
(t)
A
p
= A 1 e
T
b
RC
|
\
|
.
|
Sampling point
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 122
RC filter: noise out
Assume white noise No/2 at the input.
Output PSD is then
S
no
(f)=(N
o
/2)|H(f)|
2
Output noise power is the area under S
no
o
n
o
2
=
N
o
2
df
1+(2tfRC)
2
=
N
o
4RC
T
b
RC
|
\
|
.
|
2
T
b
RC
Goal: find the RC that maximizes
output SNR
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 124
Solving for RC
Replace RC by x and set dp/dx=0 and solve
for x. The answer is
RC=T
b
/1.26
The resulting output SNR is
p
max
=(0.816)(2A
2
T
b
/N
o
)
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 125
Comparison with matched
filter
For matched filter output SNR was
(SNR)
MF
=2E/N
o
=2A
2
T
b
/N
o
Compare with
p
max
=(SNR)
RC
=(0.816)(2A
2
T
b
/N
o
)
(SNR)
RC
=0.816(SNR)
MF
(SNR)
RC
=(SNR)
MF
-0.9 dB
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 126
ISI at filters output
Consider the following scenario
Define ISI as the ratio of unwanted over
wanted amplitudes; -11 dB with RC=T
b
/1.26
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 127
Reducing ISI
One way to reduce ISI is to make pulse
tails decay faster. This requires smaller
time constants.
For example, for RC=T
b
/2.3, ISI goes down
to -20 dB.
The price we pay is that SNR is no longer
at its peak value
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 128
Canceling ISI through
integrate-and-dump
Integrate and dump is a procedure
whereby the tail of the pulse is shorted out
at the end of the bit interval or integration
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 129
Transversal MF
It is possible to realize a MF by a
transversal filter the like of equalizer
Delay
T
Delay
T
Delay
T
Delay
T
a
n
a
n-1
a
1
+
r(t)=s(t)+n(t)
r
o
(t)=s
o
(t)+n
o
(t)
pick the weights to
maximize output
SNR at sample time
OPTIMUM DETECTION
What happens after matched filter?
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 131
Baseband binary system
PAM
Transmit
filter
channel
Receive
filter
Decision
device
+
Binary
Data
b
k
{a
k
}
s(t)
w(t)
x(t)
y(t)
t=T
b
0
1
noise
transmitter channel
receiver
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 132
Detection scenario
Once the received pulse is sampled (after
MF or equalizer), we are left with a number
Based on this number we have to make a
decision
+ MF
noise
Data=x(t)
decision
y
y>-->1
y<-->0
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 133
Polar signal in noise
Assume polar signaling in noise. The
received signal at MFs input is given by
y(t)=A+w(t)
where w(t) is random white gaussian noise
with PSD of No/2
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 134
Case for bit errors
If 0(-A) is received, MF output is
Depending on noise strength, it is possible
for y to swing over to positive territory
causing a decision in favor of +A (1)
y t ( )
t =T
b
= A+ w(t) | |
0
T
b
dt = A
desi red
+
1
T
b
w(t)dt
0
T
b
noise
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 135
Comments on the
observation
y(T
b
) is the defined as the observation
upon which a decision will be made
y(T
b
) however is a random variable.
Therefore, laws of probability govern
whether it exceeds or falls below the
threshold
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 136
Types of bit errors
Type I
making a decision in favor of a 1 when 0 is transmitted
Type II
making a decision in favor of 0 when 1 is transmitted
Type I occurs when y(T
b
) exceeds the pre-
set threshold even though a negative pulse
was transmitted
Type II occurs when y(T
b
) falls short of the
pre-set threshold even though a a positive
pulse was transmitted
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 137
Statistics of observation
At the MF output we have
y(T
b
) is a random variable with the
following statistics
y t ( )
t =T
b
= A+ w(t) | |
0
T
b
dt = A
desi red
+
1
T
b
w(t)dt
0
T
b
noise
E y T
b
( ) { }
= A
var y T
b
( ) { }
=
N
o
2T
b
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 138
Distribution of y(T
b
) when a 0
is transmitted
y(T
b
) changes depending on whether a 0 or
1 is transmitted. Since noise is gaussian
y(T
b
) is a normal random variable with
mean and variance just given
Its probability density function given that a
0 is transmitted is given by
f y 0 ( ) =
1
2to
y
e
y+A ( )
2
2o
y
2
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 139
Two density functions for
y(T
b
)
If a 1 is transmitted, y(T
b
) is normal with
mean +A. If a zero is transmitted, the mean
is -A
A
-A
f(y|1)
f(y|0)
y
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 140
Detection errors
Here is the decision rule
y>-->1 is transmitted
y<-->0 is transmitted
Detection error occurs when a 1 is
transmitted but we read y< or a 0 is sent
and we read y>
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 141
Conditional error probability:
P
eo
The probability of error given that a 0 is
transmitted is written as
P(e|0)=P(y>|0)=area under the curve beyond
y
f(y|0)
-A
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 142
and P
e1
If 1 is transmitted, density function of y is
normal and centered at +A
0
A
P
e1
y
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 143
Overall bit error rate
We want a single number quantifying
systems bit error rate(BER). BER is
obtained by averaging conditional BERs
P
e
=P(e|1)P(1)+P(e|0)P(0)
P(0) and P(1) are prior probabilities.
Meaning in what proportion are 1s and 0s
that are transmitted
Normally it is 50/50
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 144
Choice of threshold
Clearly threshold level on y makes a big
difference in BER
It can be shown that for polar signals, the
best optimum threshold is 0, i.e.
y>0 : decide in favor of 1
y<0 : decide in favor of a 0
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 145
Illustrating two BERs
One error can be reduced at the expense
of another
f(y|1)
f(y|0)
y
P
eo
P
e1
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 146
Computing BER:
Q-function
Computing BER boils down to finding areas
under gaussian PDF. These numbers are
tabulated for zero mean, unit variance
gaussians as Q-function
a
y
P(y>a)=Q(a)
0
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 147
Area under general gaussian
PDF
y is gaussian but has mean and variance
other than (0,1). What then? It is a
normalization problem
m
a
P(y>a)=Q((a-m)/o)
mean m
variance o
2
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 148
Properties of the Q-function
Due to the symmetry of gaussian PDF,
there are similar symmetries on the Q-
function. Examples are
P(y>-a)=1-Q(a)
P(y<-a)=Q(a)
P(-a<y<a)=1-2Q(a)
a
y
0 -a
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 149
Complimentary error function:
erfc
In the textbook, instead of the Q-function,
erfc is used. erfc and Q are closely related
Q v ( ) =
1
2
erfc
v
2
|
\
|
.
erfc(u) = 2Q 2u
( )
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 150
Examples
If y is a gaussian random variable with
mean 0 and variance 1, what is P(y>2)
We want Q(2). Table A7.1 shows erfc
tabulation. Converting to Q
Q(2)=0.5erfc(1.4)=0.5x0.95229=0.476
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 151
Non standard gaussian
If y is normal with mean 2 and variance 4,
what is P(y>3)
We had
P(y>a)=Q((a-mean)/std.dev))=
Q((3-2)/2)=Q(0.5)
Find Q(0.5)
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 152
BER for polar signals
We will talk about BERs at length in
chapter 8. For now, for polar signaling, the
most power efficient binary signaling:
where E
b
is energy per bit
BER=
1
2
erfc
E
b
N
o
|
\
|
.
|
2000 Bijan Mobasseri 153
Defining E
b
If a bit is transmitted via a pulse p(t) of
length T
b
, then
For a square pulse of height A
E
b
=A
2
T
b
E
b
= p
2
t ( )dt
0
T
b