Production Engineering

Well Behavior (INFLOW PERFORMANCE) Inflow Performance Radial flow behavior Vogel Inflow Performance Relationship Combined IPRs Gas Well IPR Vertical Flow Flow Regime & Nature of Two phase flow Chokes & Choke performance Well Completions

Inflow Performance
Driving force is not the reservoir pressure but the draw down - the difference in pressure between the reservoir and the wellbore. The inflow performance relationship (IPR) quantifies the flow rate from a well as a function of the draw down.

Zone of Interest in Inflow performance

Radil Flow
Pressure distribution;

Well producing at a constant flow rate.

Inflow to the well occurs in a radial fashion and the variation in pressure with increasing radius away from the well will be a function of : - Rock properties - Fluid properties - Conditions of inner and outer boundaries of the system.

Radial flow of Oil to a well

Fluid Flow in porous media

The Radial Inflow Equation for Steady State Flow

h, re and rw are constant

, and Bo are pressure dependent (possibly also k if significant compaction

Q= J

Vogel Inflow Performance Relationship

IPR for a solution gas drive

Two phase liquid and gas flow occurs in the reservoir when the flowing bottom hole pressure

is below the bubble point pressure.

Vogel IPR

Combined IPR

Gas Well IPR

In gas wells we are faced with the problem that both fluid viscosity and compressibility are highly pressure dependent. Therefore an IPR similar to the Vogel IPR above would appear to be appropriate. However, the situation is further complicated by high flow velocities around the wellbore, which often lead to turbulent flow. The Darcy flow model assumes purely laminar flow and is not valid for the additional pressure drops caused by turbulence in gas wells. The resulting non-linear IPR of gas wells is often expressed as:

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Establishing A Well's IPR

The inflow performance relationship for a given well has to be established by a well test. In theory, one production rate with corresponding bottom hole pressure and the shut-in pressure will define the inflow performance relationship. In practice a number of flow rates may be taken to confirm the well performance. If a sample of formation fluid is taken and analysed to establish the bubble point pressure, it will be possible to decide whether to use the straight line, the Vogel or the Vogel/Glass inflow performance relationship.

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Use of the IPR

The inflow performance relationship is useful as a tool to monitor well performance and predict the stimulation and artificial lift requirements of a number of wells. The IPR for a well must be known in order to size the well tubulars correctly. Based on interpolation between wells, if the initial IPR for a well is lower than expected in a particular part of the reservoir, it may then be suspected that the formation has been badly damaged during the drilling and completion phase. Mapping the IPRs across the field may highlight this situation. When wellbore damage is confirmed by a build-up survey the well may require stimulation. Even with stimulation, the inflow performance of a well will decline with falling reservoir pressure. Plotting this decline will indicate approximately when the well will have to be artificially lifted in order to maintain the required offtake rate from the field.

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Vertical Flow
The ability to pass reservoir fluids through the tubulars is termed the vertical flow performance and it is totally dependent on the tubing size and the fluid properties. While the vertical flow of fluid in a tube is completely independent of the inflow performance of the reservoir, the two phenomenon are closely related because inflow from the reservoir and the outflow through the tubing must, obviously, be equal at the wellbore. Therefore, the capacity of the reservoir to pass fluid to the wellbore and the capacity of the tubing to pass the fluid to the surface have to be matched and be operating in equilibrium

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VERTICAL FLOW
In a flowing well the majority of the pressure loss can be attributed to flow in the tubing string. Typically, 75% of all the flowing pressure losses occur in the tubing, so minimising this pressure loss has a large effect in maximising the production rate from the well.

Pressure drop in oil production

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Flow Regimes

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Vertical Flow Equation

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Gradient curves

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The Nature of Two Phase Flow

Vertical flow of Liquid and Gas

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Vertical Pressure Loss

Effect of head & friction on vertical pressure loss

Effect of Slippage & friction on vertical pressure loss

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IPR and tubing Intake Pressure Curve (IPC)

Intersection of IPR and IPC

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Production
The Well Head
Casing heads, (20,13 3/8th,7) Tubing Head, Christmas Tree Production Choke Size

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Choke
It is normal practice to control the rate at which a well flows by installing a restriction in the wellhead. As well as technical considerations, the economic climate or local government restrictions may make it necessary to limit the offtake rate to less than the well can manage. In summary, the production rate may have to be restricted in order to:
Produce the reservoir at the most efficient rate to maximise the economic returns. Limit the well offtake rate to that decreed by local government. Limit the drawdown and flow rate to prevent sand entry into the wellbore. Prevent the coning of water or cusping of gas, which may be caused by producing the well at too high a rate. Protect surface equipment from fluctuations in the production rate. Eliminate the effect of downstream pressure variations on the producing well.

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Choke performance
One of the requirements of a choke is that it isolates the producing well from pressure fluctuations, which occur, downstream of the wellhead so that separator and flowline pressures do not control the well. This condition exists if the rate of flow through the choke is greater than or equal to the speed of sound in the flowing medium and is called critical flow. For single phase gas flowing through a choke, critical flow exists if the following condition applies:

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Production
Production Choke Size
Variable/Fixed, Bean Flow Area n/64ths Down Hole Pressure & Flow

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Model of a flowing well

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Tubing Selection
The method by which the optimum tubing string is selected for a well involves the calculation of the IPR and the IPC for several different sets of conditions. These are usually as follows: IPRs for the expected life of the field, incorporating reservoir pressure decline and changes in the PI. IPCs for different tubing sizes, at different GORs, water cuts and/or tubing head pressures, depending on the expected performance of the reservoir. Production requirements such as maximising initial offtake, optimising production late in field life, etc.

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Completion Types with no sand control

Barefoot
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Slotted Liner in Open Hole

Perforated Cased Hole

Completion Types with Sand Control

Prepacked Screen

Chemical Sand Consolidation

External Gravel Pack

Internal Gravel Pack

Frac and Pack

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What is Stimulation?
Method to increase productivity by either reducing skin (S) or increasing permeability thickness (Kh)
Removal of near wellbore impairment reduces skin More formation height may be connected with the wellbore, showing up as an increase in Kh
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Matrix Stimulation
HCl Acid used for dissolving carbonates, either in the formation or from drilling fluids Mud Acid (HF & HCl) used for dissolving fines, clays and sandstone Solvents used for dissolving waxes and asphaltenes emulsions can be broken down with surfactants

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Hydraulic Fracturing
Fracturing is a process by which we create a highly conductive flow path from the wellbore into the reservoir How?
Pump at high pressure Breakdown the formation Open up & propagate the fracture Fill the fracture up with proppant
Frac fluid injection Fracture Growth Direction

smin

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Single & Dual Completions

Xmas Tree

Approximate Depths <2,000

Hydraulic Control Line Surface Controlled Subsurface Safety Valve SCSSV

Tubing

9,800

Packer Tailpipe

10,000

Perforations

Single String
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Dual String

Open Hole Completions

Barefoot

Slotted Liner

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Open hole completion

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Cased Hole Completion

When a well is cased off, all communication with the reservoir is lost. In order to regain communication, the well must be perforated.

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Well Head and completion equipment

X-mass trees Production platforms

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Dissolved gas drive reservoir

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Gas Cap drive reservoir

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Water Drive reservoir

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Typical Hdrocarbon phase diagram

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Production System

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Surface Valve and well head choke

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Conventional horizontal seperator

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Artificial Lift
Why? When ? Artificial Lift methods Gas Lift Advantages and disadvantages Gas lift design consideration

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Disadvantages
Rod Pumps 1. Friction in crooked holes 2. Pump wear with solids production. 3. Free gas reduces pump eff. 4. Downhole corrosion inhibition difficult. 5. Heavy equp. For offshore use. ESP 1. Not suitable for shallow, low volume wells. 2. Full workover required to change pump 3. Cable damage during installation. 4. Cable deteriorates at high temp. 5. Gas and solids intolerant. Hudraulic Pump 1. High surface pressure. 2. Free gas reduces pump eff. 3. Power oil systems hazardous 4. High minimum Low FBHP, abandonment pressure may not be reached. Gas Lift 1. Lift gas may not be available. 2. Not suitable for viscous crude oil. 3. Casing must withstand lift gas pressure 4. High minimum Low FBHP, abandonment pressure may not be reached

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Production Optimisation & (workover) Why : to improve a well performance and/or

gather some data that will increase the Understanding of well behaviour and therefore improving the field overall performance.

Examples :
Removal of Wellbore Damage (Acidisation)
Reduce Water Production (isolate water zone) Increase Production (by adding more perforations/etc) Lifting Method Optimisation Pressure Support to Enhance Recovery

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Production Optimisation
Optimisation Type

Inflow

Outflow

Removal of reservoir Damage

Water/Gas shut-off Additional Perforations Screen (wws) cleaning

Bean-ups
lifting Method Optimisation. convert BP to ESP replace damaged Pump upgrade the pump

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Artificial Lift ( Examples)

Sandy well Viscous Oil Max flow rate = 1500 bpd

Sandy well Light Oil Pr < Pb Deviated well Solid production Max flow rate = 8000 bpd Very good FBHP with aquifar support.

Answer : PCP

Answer : NO AL

Answer : GL

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Artificial Lift ( Advantages)

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Gas Lift

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ESP

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Hydraulic Pumps

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Artificial Lift selection

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Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages -

No volumes constraints No solids problems Low cost No Deviation constraints No GOR limits
Disadvantages

Require high pressure gas Inefficient at low production rates Limited drawdown capability Requires integral casing Safety aspects of high pressure gas
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Gas Lift Completion Design

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Outlines;
Well Completion Design The Integrated Production System Inflow performance relationship (IPR)

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Well Completion Design

The Drillers drill wells, which then have to be completed. The 3 main functions of a completion are: Connect reservoir to well & bring fluids to surface Protect the casing Safeguard the well Also need to maximise productivity while minimising life cycle cost.

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Inflow & Outflow Design

Before you look at the hardware of a completion, you need to predict what the well will do: What will it produce? How much? What are the pressures & temperatures? How long will it produce? Will there be any changes in the lifetime of the well? What are the uncertainties? To do this you need to consider the flow from the reservoir to the well (Inflow) and the flow from the bottom of the well to surface (Outflow).

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Single & Dual Completions

Xmas Tree

Approximate Depths <2,000

Hydraulic Control Line Surface Controlled Subsurface Safety Valve SCSSV

Tubing

9,800

Packer Tailpipe

10,000

Perforations

Single String
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Dual String

Open Hole Completions

Barefoot

Slotted Liner

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Perforating Techniques

Derrick

Logging Truck

Electric Wireline

Tubing

Electric Wireline Conveyed Perforating Guns

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Packer

Tubing Conveyed Perforating (TCP) Guns

Improve productivity
Artificial lift Some oil wells cant flow on their own If you suck harder the well will flow faster Sand control Can you allow sand production? Stimulation Is the formation damaged & so has productivity been impaired?

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Production System;
The main functions of an oil and gas production system are to
provide a conduit for the flow of fluids from the reservoir to the off take point at surface, and sometimes also from the surface to the subsurface, separate the produced reservoir fluids from each other, minimize the production or the negative effects of byproducts, store the produced fluids if they cannot immediately be exported measure the amounts of fluids produced and control the production process provide a part of the energy required to transport fluids through the system.

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The Integrated Production System

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Production
Flowing Wells
Pwf > Hydrocarbon Column Pressure

Production Tubing The Well Head

Casing Heads, Tubing Head, Christmas Tree

Initial Production Factors Affecting Production Skin & PI

Wellbore Damage Negative Acidizing - Positive

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Design & complete wells

Vertical, deviated or horizontal well? Where are drilling from & to? Optimise production Single or dual completion? How many reservoirs? Commingled or separate production? Perforated or open hole How stable is the hole? Do you need zonal isolation

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Production
Production Tubing
Steel Pipe run with Production Packer

The Well Head

Casing Heads, (20,13 3/8th,7) Tubing Head, Christmas Tree

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Production
The Well Head
Casing heads, (20,13 3/8th,7) Tubing Head, Christmas Tree Production Choke Size

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Production
Initial Production
Perforation TCP Wireline Perforation

Production Choke Size

Variable/Fixed, Bean Flow Area n/64ths Down Hole Pressure & Flow
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Production
Factors Affecting Production
Reservoir Fluid Properties Porosity & Permeability Rock/Fluid Properties Production Design Criteria Production History

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Production
Inflow Performance of Oil Wells (Open Hole and Cased Hole Completions) A useful inflow performance indicator in oil wells is the productivity index (Pl) of a zone which defines the potential production rate per unit of drawdown. In general the Pl will remain constant over a range of production rates, i.e. a straight line Pl relationship, as long as the flowing bottom hole pressure Pwf is greater than the bubble point pressure Pb, i.e. in the absence of free gas. Below Pb the inflow performance will become rate dependent and some form of curved IPR will generally be required to accurately describe the inflow performance.

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Straight Line IPR

The straight line IPR uses a constant productivity index (PI) to describe stabilised flow into the wellbore, where:

This relationship is satisfactory if only liquid flow occurs in the reservoir and non-Darcy (rate dependent) flow effects are negligible.

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Straight Line IPR

The stabilised flow of a slightly compressible fluid of constant compressibility into the wellbore of a single well completed over the entire producing interval in a bounded radial reservoir is given by the semi-steady state equation:
The conversion constant C1= 2 (Sl units) = 7.08 x 10-3 (field units)

The skin effect, s, is generally determined from transient flow analysis, The pressure drop due to skin is defined as:
Skin Wellbore Damage Negative Acidizing Positive

The Pl relationship can be rewritten in terms of the drawdown, i.e:

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Radial Flow System

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Average Permeability

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Production Technology

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The basic elements of a production system are

the near-wellbore area of the reservoir, i.e. a zone of several meters in radial direction around the wells at the depth of the reservoir, the wells from the reservoir to the well head at surface, the flowlines from the well heads to the surface facilities, the surface facilities, consisting of separators, pumps, compressors and other equipment for treatment and measurement, and storage tanks and pipelines up to the off take point or sales point, which can e.g. be a valve at the entrance of a gas transport pipeline or the off-loading point of an oil terminal supplying tankers.

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