Perception

The process of integrating, organizing, and interpreting sensory information into meaningful representations

Bottom-up processing
Data- driven processing Refers to info processing that emphasizes the importance of the sensory receptors in detecting the basic features of a stimulus in the process of recognizing a whole pattern

Top-down processing
Conceptually driven processing Refers to info processing that emphasizes the importance of the observers knowledge, expectations, and other cognitive processes in arriving at meaningful perceptions

Gestalt Psychology
Founded by German Psychologist Max Wertheimer in early 1900s Emphasized that we perceive whole objects or figures (gestalts) rather than isolate bits and pieces of sensory info

ESP or Extrasensory Perception

Perception of info by some means other than through the normal processes of sensation Telepathy, clairvoyance, psychokinesis, and precognition Parapsychology refers to the scientific investigation of claims of paranormal phenomena Coincidence and fallacy of positive instances

The Perception of Shape: What Is It?

Although to some degree we rely on size, color, and texture to determine what an object might be, we rely primarily on an objects shape to identify it.

Figure-ground relationship
1. An important perceptual principle that states that we automatically separate the elements of a perception into the feature that clearly stands out (the figure) and its less distinct background (the ground). The perception of an image in two different ways is called a figure-ground reversal

Which shapes in (b) are in (a)?

Figure-ground relationship
2. Perceptual grouping is the way we actively organize elements to try to produce the stable perception of well-defined, whole objects. These laws, or principles, include:
Similarity Closure Good continuation Proximity

Figure-ground relationship
2. (cont.) The law of Pragnanz or the law of simplicity
States that when several perceptual organizations of an assortment of visual elements are possible, the perceptual interpretation that will occur will be the one that produces the best, simplest, and most stable shape.

Depth Perception: How Far Away Is It?

Depth perception
Refers to the use of visual cues to perceive the distance or 3-D characteristics of objects 1. Monocular cues
Distance or depth cues that can be processed by either eye alone
A. Relative size: If 2 or more objects are assumed to be similar in size, the object that appears larger is perceived as being closer

Relationship Between Perceived size and Perceived Depth

To perceive the size of objects accurately we must also perceive their distance accurately. Thus, many visual illusions occur simply because a particular image lacks sufficient depth cues.

Retina Image

Pupupilpil A B

Image

This figure shows that image size depends upon both object size and distance

Depth Perception: How Far Away Is It?

B. Overlap: When one object partially blocks the view of another object, the partially blocked object is perceived as being farther away Aerial perspective: Faraway objects often appear hazy or slightly blurred by the atmosphere Texture gradient: As a surface with a distinct texture extends into the distance, the details of the surface texture gradually become less clearly defined Linear perspective: Parallel lines seem to meet in the distance. The closer together the lines appear to be, the greater the perception of distance. Motion parallax: When you are moving, you sue the speed of passing objects to estimate the distance of the objects. Nearby objects seem to zip by faster than do distance objects

Depth Perception: How Far Away Is It?

When monocular cues are used by an artist to create the perception of distance, they are called pictorial cues Accommodation, another monocular cue, utilizes info about changes in shape of the lens of the eye to help us estimate distance

Depth Perception: How Far Away Is It?

2. Binocular cues
For distance or depth perception require info from both eyes A. Convergence is the degree to which muscles rotate your eyes to focus on an object Binocular disparity occurs because our eyes are set a couple of inches apart, causing a slightly different image of an object to be cast on the retina of each eye A stereogram is a picture that uses the principle of binocular disparity to create the perception of 3-D image

The Perception of Motion: Where Is It Going?

As we follow a moving object with our gaze, the image of the object moves across the retina; we compare the moving object to the background, which is usually stationary When the retinal image of an object enlarges, we perceive the object as moving toward us; our perception of its speed is based on our estimate of the object's rate of enlargement.

The Perception of Motion: Where Is It Going?

First studied by Gestalt psychologist Karl Duncker in the 1920s, induced motion is the illusion of motion that occurs because we have a strong tendency to assume that the background is stationary. Stroboscopic motion, another illusion of apparent motion, was first studied by Gestalt psychologist Max Wertheimer in the early 1900s. It occurs when a light briefly flashes at one location, followed about a 1/10th of a second later by another light briefly flashing at a second location. The perception of smooth movements in motion picture is also due to stroboscopic motion

Perceptual Constancies
Perceptual constancy is the tendency to perceive objects, especially familiar objects, as constant and unchanging despite changes in sensory input.
1. Size constancy is the perception that an object remains the same size despite its changing image on the retina. If the retinal image of an object does not change, but the perception of its distance increases, the object is perceived as larger

Perceptual Constancies
2. Shape constancy is the tendency to perceive familiar objects as having a fixed shape regardless of the image they case on our retinas.

Perceptual Illusions
Perceptual illusion is the misperception of the true characteristics of an object or an image
A. the Muller-Lyer illusion involves the misperception of the identical length of 2 lines, one with the arrow pointed inward, one with the arrow pointed outward

Perceptual Illusions

Perceptual Illusions

Perceptual Illusions
The Moon Illusion
Involves the misperception that the moon is larger when it is on the horizon that when it is directly overhead. The retinal size of the moon is the same in all positions; if you watch the moon rise from the horizon to the night sky, however, it does appear to shrink in size

Perceptual Illusions
Perceptual illusions underscore the fact that what we see is not merely a simple a reflection of the world, but rather our subjective perceptual interpretation of it

The Stroop Effect: Learned Automaticity

Some abilities which once required attention can become automatic through practice. An example of such learned automaticity is found in the Stroop Intereference Effect. Stroop found that the act of reading could interfere with your ability to perform simple perceptual distinctions like naming colors.

The Stroop Effect

The Effects of Experience on Perceptual Interpretations

Past experiences often predispose us to perceive a situation in a particular way, even though other perceptions are possible The carpentered-world hypothesis
Two views of perceptual processes
The nativist position is that people everywhere, whatever their background, see the world the same way because they share the same perceptual rules The empiricist position is that people actively construct their perceptions by drawing on their prior learning experiences, including cultural experiences

The Effects of Experience on Perceptual Interpretations

Research has supported the carpentered-world hypothesis (the empiricist position) that people living in urban industrialized environments are more susceptible to the Muller-Lyer illusion because they have more experience judging lines, corners, edges, and other rectangular manufactured objects. Race plays no role.

Perceptual set is the influence of prior assumptions and expectancies on perceptual interpretations

Application: Strategies to Control Pain

Self- Administered Strategies to Control Pain
Distraction: Actively focus your attention on some nonpainful stimulus Imagery: Create a vivid mental image of a pleasant scenario Relaxation: Learn relaxation strategies Counter irritation: Create a strong competing sensation that is mildly stimulating or irritating Positive self talk: Make positive coping statements or redefine the pain

Application: Strategies to Control Pain

Can Magnets Relieve Pain?
Magnets are a popular alternative treatment for pain, but scientific evidence of their efficacy is inconclusive

Strategies Pain Specialists Use

Hypnosis Painkilling drugs Biofeedback: Learning control over largely automatic body functions Acupuncture: Inserting tiny needles at specific locations on the body to relieve pain