2.

2 CELL ORGANISATION
Living processes in unicellular organisms Cell specialisation in multicellular organisms Cell organisation in multicellular organisms

Living processes in unicellular organisms

Small and simple organisms. Carry out vital functions within a single cell. Can feed, respire, excrete, move, respond to stimuli, reproduce and grow.

Amoeba sp.
Free-living in freshwater environment as well as soil water. Changing shape as it meets obstacles and responds to stimuli.

Structure of Amoeba sp.

Locomotion in Amoeba sp.

Amoeba sp. moves by extending temporary pseudopodia/false feet and anchoring the tips on the ground. Followed by the flow of cytoplasm into the projected pseudopodia.

Feeding in Amoeba sp.

Feeds on microscopic organism bacteria Amoeba sp. engulfs food by phagocytosis. Amoeba sp. approaches the food particles such as bacteria. The presence of food causes Amoeba sp. to advance by extending its pseudopodia. - The pseudopodia enclose the food which is then packaged in a food vacuole. - The food vacuole fuses with a lysosome and the food is digested by a hydrolytic enzyme called lysozyme. - The resulting nutrients are absorbed into the cytoplasm.

Phagocytosis in Amoeba sp.

Reproduction of Amoeba sp.

The amoeba reproduce mainly by binary fission Binary fission is a method of asexual reproduction which does not involve the fusion of gametes. When food is abundant, the amoeba reproduces by binary fission. When the amoeba reaches a maximum size, the nucleus divides into two and the cytoplasm constrict, forming two new amoeba. The amoeba does not reproduce sexually.

Respiration

Exchange of gases, nutrients and waste substances occur through the plasma membrane by diffusion.

Excretion

As Amoeba sp. lives in freshwater, water diffuses into the cell by osmosis and fill the contractile vacuole. Contractile vacuoles are involved in osmoregulation. When the vacuole is filled to a maximum size, it contracts to expel its contents from time to time.

Reproduction

When the environment is favourable, Amoeba sp. reproduces asexually by binary fission. However, when the environment is not condusive to reproduction, Amoeba sp. forms spores.

Cell specialisation in multicellular organisms

Organisms which consists of more than one cell. Example :
zygote Two cells Four cells Eight cells A ball of cells (embryo)

 A ball of cells (embryo) - White blood cells can change their shape to attack germs. - Nerve cells have long, thin fibres called axons which conduct nerve impulses. - Red blood cells are shaped like biconcave discs and are very flexible. - Sperm cells have long tails which allow them to swin towards ovum.

Some of human cell and their functions

Cell Muscle cell Function Able to contract and relax and are involve in movement Involves in defence of the body against diseases Fertilises the ovum Transport oxygen Receive and sends out nerve impulses

White blood cell

Sperm Red blood cell Nerve cell

Cell organisation in multicellular organisms

Tissue : a group of similar cells performing a particular function. Organ : a group of tissues that performs a specialised function. System : work together to make up an organisms.
Cells Tissue Organ
System Organism

Cell organisation in animals

Tissue Characteristic Epithelial Skin and mouth form a protective barrier against infection, mechanical injuries, chemicals and dehydration. tissue

Inner linings of cavities(digestive tract and lungs) exchange of gases Lining of small intestine secrete mucus into digestive tract. Lining of glands, ducts and kidney tubules modifies to form glands in the skin. Lining of trachea mucus traps dust particles , cilia sweep the impurities away from lungs.
Most abundant tissue in the body. It is composed of cells called muscle fibres. Smooth muscle (intestine, blood vessels,urinary and reproductive tracts) involuntary actions , churning action, constriction. Skeletal muscle (arms and legs) voluntary movement Cardiac muscle (walls of the heart) contract to pump blood.

Muscle tissue

Tissue Nerve tissues

Characteristics / located at / functions

Composed of neurones or nerve cells. Consists of a cell body and nerve dendrites and axons. Functions detect stimuli and transmit signal (nerve impulses) over a long distances. Nerve tissues control and coordinate activities of the body. 3 types of neurones : afferent neurones, efferent neurones and interneurones.

Tissue Connective tissues Loose connective tissue Dense fibrous connective tissue

Characteristics / located at / functions Consist of various types of cells and fibres separated by an extracellular matrix. Binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place. Contains large number of collagenous fibres which are packed closely together. Can be found in tendons (connect muscles to bones and in ligaments) Strong and flexible. Provide support to nose, ears and covers the ends of bones at joints. Consists of cells embedded in a matrix of collagen which are hardened by mineral deposits calcium . This makes the bones harder than cartilage. Provide protection to organs in the body, support the body

Cartilage

Bone

Tissue Blood cells

Characteristics / located at / functions Produced in the bone marrow. Located at the ends of long bones. Has regulating, transporting, and protective functions. Consists of tightly packed cells stores fat. Can be found in dermis of the skin and around major organs. Acts as an energy reserve and also provides insulationa and protection.

Adipose tissue

Organs
Formed by two or more types of tissues working together to perform a particular function. E.g: heart, skin, lubngs, kidneys, eyes, ears..
Organ Skin Characteristics Covers the body. Acts as a barrier against infection, physical trauma and water loss. Composed of two main layers dermis , epidermis. Epidermis outer layer of the skin, made up of epithelial tissue. Dermis composed of connective tissue, nerve tissue, epithelial tissuea and muscle tissue. Blood is supplied to the skin through network of blood capillaries. Nerve endings receptors which transmit nerve impulses (pressure, temperature, touch and pain) Specialised epithelial cells in the skin form structures hair follicles(produce hair), sweat glands(secrete sweat), oil glands(secrete sebum)

Organ (skin)

Systems
Consists of several organs work together to perform a common function. There are 11 major systems which carry out major body functions in humans.

Circulatory system

Respiratory system

Endocrine system

Intergumentary system

Lymphatic system

Nervous system

Muscular system

Digestive system

Skeletal system

Male reproductive system

Excretory system

Female reproductive system

Cell organisation in plants

Meristematic tissues
Consists of small cells which have thin walls, large nuclei, dense cytoplasm and no vacuoles. They are young, actively dividing cells which have not undergone differentiation. Located at the tips of roots and the buds of shoots.

Permanent tissues
Mature tissue that have undergone differentiation or are still undergoing differentiation. Three types:
i. Epidermal tissues ii. Ground tissues iii. Vascular tissues

Epidermal tissue
Outermost layer that covers the stems , leaves and roots of young plants. Flat and have large vacuoles. Walls covered with a waxy cuticle. Waxy cuticle minimises water loss through evaporation, protects plant from mechanical injuries and prevent invansion of diseases caused by microorganisms. Root epidermal cells have long projection called root hairs Specialised epidermal cells that contain chloroplast are called guard cells.

Ground tissue
Consists of :
i. Parenchyma tissue ii. Collenchyma tissue iii. Sclerenchyma tissue

From the bulk of a plant.

The least specialised

Thin primary walls and large vacuoles

Parenchyma cells

Store sugar and starch

Turgid gives support and shape to herbaceous plants

Colllenchyma cells

Thickened cell walls especially at the corners

Supports nonwoody herbaceous plants sclerenchyma cells

Supports young stems and petioles

Cell wall uniformly thickened by lignin and may be dead

Give support and mechanical strength to mature regions of a plant

Vascular tissue
XYLEM - Mainly are xylem vessels joined together end to end, from the roots up to the leaves - No cytoplasm so it enables efficienttransport of water and mineral salts - Cell walls are thickened with lignin toprovide support and mechanical strengthto plants

PHLOEM Mainly are sieve tubes, arranged end to end to form long continuous tube-like structures. Transport organic compounds such as newly synthesised carbohydrates and amino acids from the leaf to other parts of the plant

Organs and systems in plants

Leaf, stem, root and flower. Leaf made up of ground tissues, epidermal tissues and vascular tissues. Systems in plants are not specialised as those of animals. Plants have fewer organs as compared to animals. Flowering plants consists of two main systems : root system and shoot system. There is also support system in plants consisting stems and branches