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600M years ago, nearly 100 phyla evolved representing nearly all major modern body plans Major body plans - result of extensive selection - determinant of future adaptational variants Animals share structural complexities that reflect common ancestry
Grades of Organization
Unicellular protozoan groups are the simplest animal-like organisms. a.Within the cell, they perform all basic functions b.Diversity is achieved by varying architectural patterns of subcellular structures, organelles and the whole cell
Metazoa - multicellular
Cells become specialized parts of a whole organism; these cells cannot live alone as do protozoan cells Cellular grade of organization Simplest metazoans - not strongly associated to perform a collective function tissue grade organization - More complex metazoans have cells working closely together as a unit. **parenchyma - chief functional cells of an organ **stroma supportive tissues Many tissues work together in an organ; most metazoans operate at the organ system level
Animal Symmetry
Spherical symmetry - when any plane divides the body into mirrored halves, as in cutting a globe in half
Radial symmetry - when any plane passing through the longitudinal axis divides the body into mirrored halves, as in cutting a pie
E.g. Cnidaria and Ctenophora are the Radiata
Biradial symmetry in an animal that is radial, except for some paired feature that allows only two mirrored halves (comb jellies)
Cephalization
Differentiation of the head, or cephalization, is mainly found in bilaterally symmetrical animals
Sponges have no body cavity Like all metazoans, sponges develop from a zygote to a blastula stage In sponges, after the formation of a blastula, the cells reorganize to form the adult animal
b. enterocoelous - cells from the central portion of the gut lining begin to grow outward as pouches The expanding pouch walls form a mesodermal ring and enclose a space which becomes a coelomic cavity.
Metamerism (Segmentation)
Metamerism - serial repetition of similar body segments Each segment is a metamere or somite. True metamerism is found in Annelida, Arthropoda and Chordata
Epithelial Tissue
a. Epithelium - sheet of cells that covers an internal or external surface provides outside protection and internal linings Simple epithelia are found in all metazoa. Stratified epithelia are restricted to vertebrates. All epithelia have an underlying basement membrane. Blood vessels never penetrate epithelial tissues.
trachea
Made up of few cells, many extracellular fibers and a ground substance or matrix. Two types of connective tissue proper (vertebrates) 1) Loose connective tissue - fibers and both fixed and wandering cells in a syrupy matrix 2) Dense connective tissues (e.g., ligaments and tendons) are characterized by densely packed fibers. Much fibrous tissue is made of protein collagen, the most abundant protein in the animal kingdom.
Connective Tissue
b. dense/tendon
more fibers, decrease in fluid & cells
II. Specialized connective tissue has other specific functions aside from binding
a. Adipose adipocytes - store fats & nutrients, provide insulation, act as cushion - fusiform nucleus
b. Cartilage chondrocytes - housed inside a matrix called Lacuna 3 types of cartilage accdg to matrix: 1. Hyaline e.g cartilage of trachea - clear homogenous matrix
2. Elastic cartilage in epiglottis & external ear - similar to hyaline except for the elastic fibers present
c. Bone osteocytes - support, protection, movement, formation of blood cells, reservoir of calcium
d. Blood
transport medium of the body Plasma fluid medium where all cell types are found 1. Erythrocytes frog/human
Leucocytes
Granular wbc
Granulated cytoplasm & polymorphous/multi-lobulated nucleus Connected by chromatin strands 1. Eosinophils 2 lobes; pink to red granules 2. Basophils S-shaped; blue 3. Neutrophils 3-5 lobes ; purple
Agranular wbc
Monocyte kidney-shaped/oval nucleus Lymphocyte large nucleus
Thrombocytes
Platelets minute cytoplasmic fragments
Agranulated
Granulated
platelets
Muscular Tissue
most abundant tissue in most animals. originates from mesoderm. muscle fiber - cells specialized for contraction. Striated muscles include skeletal and cardiac muscles. Smooth muscles lack the alternating bands seen in striated muscle. Myofibrils are contractile elements and the unspecialized cytoplasm is sarcoplasm
Muscle tissue
Contractility Muscle fibers 3 types
Nervous Tissue
receives and conducts impulses Nervous tissue cell types are neurons and neuroglia that support the neurons.
Copes Law of Phyletic Increase - lineages began with small individuals and eventually evolved toward giant forms; it holds for nonflying vertebrates and many invertebrates.