Digestion

Digestion
Digestion is the process of breaking down large, complex substances into smaller, simpler molecules for absorption Carbohydrates -> glucose/fructose/galactose Proteins -> amino acids Fats -> fatty acids and glycerol Vitamins, minerals and water can be absorbed directly without digestion

Mechanical Digestion vs. Chemical Digestion

Mechanical process Chewing of teeth Churning of stomach Food is changed physically but not chemically Increase surface area of food substances Chemical process Involves action of digestive enzymes secreted from glands Different types of enzymes break down different food types

Saliva
The taste, smell and sight of food can stimulate salivary glands to secrete saliva into the mouth via salivary ducts Saliva contains water, mucus and salivary amylase. Slightly alkaline Water moistens and softens food Mucus lubricate food for swallowing Salivary amylase starch -> maltose

Swallowing
1) Food is chewed and mixed with saliva 2) Tongue rolls the food into a bolus 3) Food is swallowed down the oesophagus through the pharynx 4) Tongue moves upwards and backwards to prevent food from entering the trachea/nasal cavity 5) The soft palate moves up to block the nasal cavity 6) The larynx moves upwards to so that the glottis (the opening to the larynx) is covered by the epiglottis to prevent food from entering the trachea

Movement of Food Along the Alimentary Canal

Inner surface of alimentary canal is lined with one to several layers of cells epithelium Some epithelial cells produce mucus, which acts as a lubricant

Peristalsis

The small intestine has two muscle layers that work together in peristalsis and segmentation

Peristalsis

The inner circular muscles contract, tightening the tube and pushing the food forward in the intestine

Peristalsis

When the circular muscles relax, the outer longitudinal muscles contract, and the intestinal tube is shortened

Peristalsis

As the circular and longitudinal muscles tighten and relax, the food moves forward

Stomach
a muscular, elastic, pear-shaped bag, lying crosswise in the abdominal cavity food enters the stomach from the esophagus. The connection between the stomach and the esophagus is called the cardiac sphincter The other end of the stomach empties into the duodenum, the first section of the small intestine. The pyloric sphincter separates the stomach from the duodenum

Sphincter Opened

Sphincter Closed

Functions of Stomach
Storage Mechanical digestion turns food into chyme Chemical digestion

 The lining of the stomach contains deep collections of cells organized into gastric glands The openings of the gastric glands into the surface of the stomach are called gastric pits The mucous cells in the gastric pits secrete mucus In the deeper part of the gland, the parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid The chief cells secrete pepsinogen (an inactive form of the protein-digesting enzyme pepsin)

Small Intestine
The small intestine is divided into 3 sections: Duodenum Jejunum Ileum
* In the small intestine, both digestion and absorption occur

Bile
Bile is a dark green fluid containing: 1) bile salts 2) sodium hydrogen carbonate 3) bile pigments Bile does NOT contain digestive enzymes Made by the liver Stored in the gall bladder

 The gall bladder contracts to release bile into the duodenum via the bile duct Stimulated by the arrival of chyme in the duodenum

Bile
1) Bile salts EMULSIFICATION - Bile salts break up (emulsify) lipids into small oil droplets - This allows enzymes to have a larger surface area to break down the fat molecules
Lipids droplets Small oil

Bile
2) Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate NEUTRALIZATION - It neutralizes stomach acid to provide the necessary alkaline condition (pH 8) for the pancreatic and intestinal enzymes to work

The pH Scale
Acidic
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Alkaline
9 10 11

Neutra More acidic l

More basic

The Need for Different pH Levels

The stomach releases hydrochloric acid to provide an acidic condition (pH1 - 2) for stomach proteases (e.g. pepsin) to work. Acid also kills germs The activity of salivary amylase is stopped in the stomach since it cannot work in acidic conditions. Pancreatic amylase also requires an alkaline condition to work

The Need for Different pH Levels

3) The gall bladder releases bile into the small intestine to provide an alkaline condition (pH 8) for the pancreatic and intestinal enzymes to work

Bile
3) Bile pigments - Waste products formed from the breakdown of old red blood cells in the liver

Pancreas
A yellowish organ found beneath the stomach and is connected to the small intestine at the duodenum Produces pancreatic juice that flows into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct

Pancreas
Pancreatic juice contains 3 types of digestive enzymes: Tryptase Amylase Lipase
*Pancreas also produces the hormones glucagon and insulin to regulate the level of blood glucose

Intestinal Juice
Alkaline solution containing digestive enzymes, hormones, mucus, neutralizing substances, etc. Secreted by intestinal glands in the wall of the duodenum e.g. carbohydrases catalyze the breakdown of double sugars into simple sugars

Carbohydrase
Maltase: Maltose -> Glucose + Glucose

2) Sucrase: Sucrose -> Glucose + Fructose 3) Lactase: Lactose -> Glucose + Galactose

Lactose Intolerance
Inability to digest significant amount of lactose, the predominant sugar of milk, due to a shortage of the enzyme lactase Common symptoms include nausea, cramps, bloating, gas, and diarrhoea The undigested lactose will serve as food for bacteria found in the large intestine

Digestion in Ileum
Completion of digestion Food is churned by peristaltic movement and is mixed with digestive juices Food becomes watery fluid called chyle Food is now present in simplest form

Absorption

Absorption
Absorption is the uptake of simple and small food molecules from the alimentary canal into the blood stream Food molecules can be absorbed into blood by diffusion or active transport Absorption occurs in the stomach, the small intestine and the large intestine

Absorption in Stomach
Food substances that are absorbed in the stomach: Water Minerals Alcohol Simple sugars Water-soluble vitamins

Absorption in Small Intestine

Most of the digested food is absorbed in the small intestine The inner lining of the small intestine is folded to provide a large surface area The inner surface of the small intestine is made up of a large number of finger-like projections called villi (singular: villus) Peristalsis in the small intestine allows the digested food to come into contact with the villi for absorption

Structure of Villi
Epithelium lining Blood capillaries (transportation of simple sugars, amino acids and minerals) Lacteal (lymph vessel)

Lacteal
fatty acids and glycerol recombine in the epithelium of the villus to form fat which then enters the lacteal as fine fat droplets the lymphatic system converges with the circulatory system at a duct located in the neck area

Feature
1. It is very long (6 m)
2. Its inner surface is covered with numerous finger-like projections called villi 3. The wall of villi is thin (one-cell thick) 4. Each villus contains a dense network of blood capillaries

Adaptation
Food can stay long enough for absorption to occur
These villi can increase the total surface area for absorption

This allows the food to cross the membrane rapidly

They take up the absorbed food and transport them away

Absorption in Large Intestine

Much of the remaining water and minerals is absorbed in the colon The appendix, which has no known functions, is joined to the caecum Appendicitis food materials trapped in the appendix causing bacterial infection

Assimilation

Assimilation
the process by which absorbed food molecules in the blood are transported to cells for the use of growth, tissue repair and other metabolic activities. The actual destiny of each food molecule depends not only on its type but also on the body requirements at that time (e.g. use immediately or put into storage)

Liver
Largest organ of the body Reddish brown in color Lies on the right side of the abdominal cavity beneath the diaphragm Blood is carried to the liver via two large vessels called the hepatic artery and the hepatic portal vein After processing in the liver, blood leaves the liver through the hepatic vein

Functions of Liver
Carbohydrate metabolism - the liver converts excess glucose into glycogen as a temporary way of storing the glucose. Glycogen can also be converted back to glucose when needed Fat metabolism - the liver converts excess protein and carbohydrate into fat. Excess glycogen is stored as fat for long term storage

Functions of Liver
3) Protein metabolism the liver can synthesize new proteins/ amino acids and deaminate excess amino acids

Deamination
Amino group (~NH2) removed Ammonia (NH3) produced (toxic) Ammonia converted to urea excreted in urine Carbon skeleton converted to carbohydrates

Functions of Liver
3) Protein metabolism the liver can synthesize new proteins/amino acids and deaminate excess amino acids 4) Vitamin storage - the liver stores mainly vitamins A, D and B12 5) Iron storage - the liver stores iron which is obtained from the breakdown of red blood cells. The iron salts can be used in the formation of new RBC

Functions of Liver
6) Bile production emulsification and neutralization 7) Drug/Alcohol metabolism the liver changes the drug into an excretable and harmless form (detoxification) 8) Disposal of bacteria - The liver filters many bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms from the blood

Egestion

Egestion
Faeces semi-solid, greenish brown mass containing undigested and unabsorbed food substances. Also contains bile pigment (hence the color of faeces), dead RBC, cells from intestinal wall, bacteria, etc. Temporarily stored in rectum Anal sphincter relaxes to allow a person to defaecate

Constipation and Diarrhoea

Peristalsis too slow Too much water absorbed Some common causes include lack of fibre in diet, not enough liquids, lack of exercise, etc. Lead to dry, hard faeces Difficulty in defaecation May damage wall of rectum and cause bleeding or form piles Peristalsis too fast Too little water absorbed Some common causes include bacterial / viral / parasitic infections, food intolerance, etc. Lead to loose, watery stools More frequent egestion May cause dehydration

Haemorrhoids
Also referred to as piles Haemorrhoids are enlarged veins just under the surface tissue of the rectum or the anus Haemorrhoids in the rectum are called internal haemorrhoids; those that occur around the anus are called external haemorrhoids May cause bleeding, pain, itching and a sense of pressure

Haemorrhoids
Increased pressure in the veins around the anus is thought to be the cause of haemorrhoids: straining to pass a bowel motion because of hard, dry stools (as in constipation) diarrhoea heavy lifting being very overweight sitting or standing for long periods pregnancy