Chapter 1 Computer Networks and the Internet

Objectives
Connecting to the Internet Networking terminology Some network architectures The importance of bandwidth Networking models: OSI vs TCP/IP

Connecting to the Internet

Internet Fundamentals
The Internet A network of Interconnected Networks Computers can exist without the Internet but the Internet cannot exist without computers The Internet can be thought of as a Tree The trunk and branches are the pathways connecting networks The leaves are the computers Computers connect to the internet in a number of ways, can you list them? Dial-up (Modem) ISDN DSL Cable Network

Requirements for Internet Connection

Physical connection: used to transfer signals between PCs within the local network and to remote devices on the Internet Logical connection: uses standards called protocols. A protocol is a formal description of a set of rules and conventions that govern how devices on a network communicate. The application: interprets the data and displays the information in an understandable form

Networking Terminology

Evolution of Networking
Businesses needed a solution that would successfully address the following three problems: How to avoid duplication of equipment and resources How to communicate efficiently How to set up and manage a network Network history In the 1980s users with stand-alone computers started to share files using modems to connect to other computers. This was referred to as point-to-point, or dial-up communication Bulletin boards became the central point of communication in a dial-up connection. Drawbacks to this type of system were: That there was very little direct communication Availability was limited to only with those who knew about the location of the bulletin board Required one modem per connection. If five people connected simultaneously it would require five modems connected to five separate phone lines From the 1960s-1990s, the DoD developed large, reliable, WANs for military and scientific reasons. In 1990, the DoDs WAN eventually became the Internet

Evolution of Networking

Networking History

Networking History

Networking Devices
A device is an equipment that connects directly to a network segment. There are 2 types: End-user devices include computers, printers, scanners that provide services directly to the user. Network devices include all the devices that connect the enduser devices together to allow them to communicate. They provide: extension of cable connections, concentration of connections, conversion of data formats, management of data transfers A host is an end-user device that provide users with a connection to the network using a NIC

Networking Devices

Network Topology
Network topology defines the structure of the network. The physical topology, which is the actual layout of the wire or media. The logical topology, which defines how the media is accessed by the hosts for sending data.

Physical Topology
Bus Extended Star Uses a single backbone cable Links stars by linking hubs All hosts connect directly to or switches backbon Hierarchical Ring Similar to extended star Connects each host to the next, Links star LANs to a and the last to the first computer that controls Physical ring of cable network traffic Star Mesh Connects all cables to a central Each host is connected to point of concentration all other hosts Usually a hub or switch at center No breaks, ever!

Physical Topology

Logical Topology
Broadcast Each host sends its data to all other hosts First come, first served to use the network Ex: Ethernet Token Passing Controls access by passing token Host can send only when it has the token Ex:Token Ring and Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

Broadcast

Token Passing

Network Protocols
Protocol suites are collections of protocols that enable network communication from one host through the network to another host. A protocol is a formal description of a set of rules and conventions that govern a particular aspect of how devices on a network communicate:
How the physical network is built How computers connect to the network How the data is formatted for transmission How that data is sent How to deal with errors

LANs
Features: Operate within a limited geographic area Allow many users to access high-bandwidth media Provide full-time connectivity to local services Connect physically adjacent devices Local Administration LANs consist of the following components: Computers Network interface cards Peripheral devices Networking media Network devices LANs make it possible to locally share files and printers efficiently. Examples of common LAN technologies are: Ethernet Token Ring FDDI

WANs
Features: Operate over a large geographically separated areas Allow users to have real-time communication capabilities with other users Provide full-time remote resources connected to local services Provide e-mail, World Wide Web, file transfer, and e-commerce services WANs interconnect LANs Some common WAN technologies are: Modems ISDN DSL Frame Relay T and E Carrier Series T1, E1, T3, E3 SONET

Metropolitan-Area Networks (MANs)

A MAN is a network that spans a metropolitan area such as a city or suburban area. Usually consists of 2 or more LANs in a common geographic area. Ex: a bank with multiple branches may utilize a MAN. Typically, a service provider is used to connect two or more LAN sites using private communication lines or optical services.

Storage-Area Networks (SANs)

A SAN is a dedicated, high-performance network used to move data between servers and storage resources. Separate, dedicated network, that avoids any traffic conflict between clients and servers SANs offer the following features: Performance allows concurrent access of disk or tape arrays by two or more servers at high speeds Availability have disaster tolerance built in, because data can be mirrored using a SAN up to 10km or 6.2 miles away. Scalability Like a LAN/WAN, it can use a variety of technologies. This allows easy relocation of backup data, operations, file migration, and data replication between systems.

Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)

A VPN is a private network that is constructed within a public network such as the Internet. It offers secure, reliable connectivity over a shared public network infrastructure such as the Internet. A telecommuter can access the network of the company through the Internet by building a secure tunnel between the telecommuters PC and a VPN router in the company

Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)

Benefits and Types of VPNs

Benefits:
A VPN is a service that offers secure, reliable connectivity over a shared public network infrastructure such as the Internet. VPNs maintain the same security and management policies as a private network. They are the most cost-effective method of establishing a point-to-point connection between remote users and an enterprise customer's network.

There are three main types of VPNs:

Access VPNs Intranet VPNs Extranet VPNs

Bandwidth

Importance of Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the amount of information that can flow through a network connection in a given period of time. Bandwidth is finite: the bandwidth of a modem is limited to about 56 kbps by both the physical properties of twisted-pair phone wires and by modem technology Bandwidth is not free: For WAN connections bandwidth is purchased from a service provider A key factor in analyzing network performance and designing new networks The demand for bandwidth is ever increasing

Bandwidth Analogies

Bandwidth is like the width of a pipe: The water is like the data, and the pipe width is like the bandwidth Bandwidth is like the number of lanes on a highway: The data packets are the automobiles, and the bandwidth is comparable to the number of lanes on the highway. It is easy to see how low bandwidth connections can cause traffic to become congested all over the network

Digital Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the measure of how much information, or bits, can flow from one place to another in a given amount of time, or seconds. In digital systems, the basic unit of bandwidth is bits per second (bps) The actual bandwidth of a network is determined by a combination of the physical media and the technologies chosen for signaling and detecting network signals

Throughput
Throughput refers to actual measured bandwidth, at a specific time of day, using specific Internet routes, and while a specific set of data is transmitted on the network. Factors that determine throughput: Internetworking devices Type of data being transferred Network topology Number of users on the network User computer Server computer Power conditions

Bandwidth Highway Analogy

Data Transfer Calculation

Digital vs. Analog

Analog bandwidth is measured by how much of the electromagnetic spectrum is occupied by each signal. In digital signaling, all information is sent as bits, regardless of the kind of information it is. Therefore, analog transmission is bandwidth dependent while digital transmission is not. The unit of analog bandwidth is hertz (Hz), or cycles per second. Radio, television, and telephone transmissions have been sent through the air and over wires using electromagnetic waves. Used to describe the bandwidth of : Cordless telephones is 900 MHz or 2.4 GHz The 802.11a and 802.11b wireless networks operating at 5 GHz and 2.4 GHz

Networking Models

Analyzing network in layer

What is flowing ? Data What different forms flow ? Text, Graphic, Video ...

What rules govern flow ? Standard, Protocol ...

Where does the flow occur ? Cable, Atmosphere ...

Communication
Transmission of information Examples:
Speaking. Smoke signal. Body language. Morse. Telephone. Broadcast systems (radio, television). Internet

Communication characteristics
Addresses
What are the source and the destination of a communication process?

Media
Where does the communication take place?

Protocols
How to make the communication process effectively? Packets

Protocols

Source Address

Medium

Destination Address

Communication: Human conversation

Address
Hello Mr.A, I am B

Media
Atmosphere

Protocol
Language Speed Handshaking

Data Communication

Address
Source address, Destination address

Media
Cable, Fiber, Atmosphere

Protocol
Format Procedure

Data Communication
Source, destination, and data packets
All communications originate at a source and travel to a destination. Information that travels on a network is referred to as a data, packet, or data packet.

Evolution of networking standards

SNA

Standard

Interconnection Development Simplification

Proprietary

TCP/IP

DECNET

OSI model development

Researched and developed by the ISO - International Organization for Standardizations. 1977: establish a subcommittee to develop a communications architecture. 1984: publish ISO-7498, the Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model.

OSI Model
The OSI model: a framework within which networking standards can be developed. It provided vendors with a set of standards that ensured greater compatibility and interoperability between the various types of network technologies that were produced by the many companies around the world.

Proprietary vs. Open

Why a layered model

Reduces complexity. Standardizes interfaces. Facilitates modular engineering. Ensures technology compatibility. Accelerates evolution. Simplifies teaching and learning.

7 layers of the OSI reference model

Network processes to applications
Data representation Interhost communication End-to-end connections Address and best path Direct link control, access to media Binary transmission All People Seem To Need Data Processing

7 layers of the OSI reference model

Network processes to applications Is the OSI layer that is closest to the user; it provides network services to the users applications.
File transfer Electronic mail Terminal access Word processing Intended communication partners

7 layers of the OSI reference model

Data representation Ensures that the information that the application layer of one system sends out is readable by the application layer of another system.
Format of data Data structure Data conversion Data compression Data encryption

7 layers of the OSI reference model

Interhost communication Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between two communicating hosts.
Sessions Dialog Conversations Data exchange

7 layers of the OSI reference model

End-to-end connections Provides reliable, transparent transfer of data over networks.
Segments, data stream, datagram Connection oriented and connectionless End-to-end flow control Error detection and recovery Segmentation & reassembly

7 layers of the OSI reference model

Address and best path Provides connectivity and path selection between two host systems that may be located on geographically separated networks.
Packets Virtual circuits Route, routing table, routing protocol Logical address Fragmentation

7 layers of the OSI reference model

Direct link control, access to media Provides for the reliable transfer of data cross a physical link.
Frames Physical address Network topology Line discipline Synchronization Error control Flow control

7 layers of the OSI reference model

Binary transmission Transmission of an unstructured bit stream over a physical link between end systems.
Electrical, mechanical, procedural and functional specifications Physical data rate Distances Physical connector

Airmail

Peer-to-Peer Communication
For data to travel from the source to the destination, each layer of the OSI model at the source must communicate with its peer layer at the destination.

Peer-to-Peer Communication
During this process, the protocols of each layer exchange information, called protocol data units (PDUs), between peer layers. Each layer of communication on the source computer communicates with a layer-specific PDU, and with its peer layer on the destination computer.

Encapsulation example: E-mail

Layer-to-layer communications

Provide services

Request services

TCP/IP model development

The late-60s The Defense Advance Research Projects Agency (DARPA) originally developed Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) to interconnect various defense department computer networks. The Internet, an International Wide Area Network, uses TCP/IP to connect networks across the world.

The TCP/IP Reference Model

It is important to note that some of the layers in the TCP/IP model have the same name as layers in the OSI model. Do not confuse the layers of the two models.

TCP/IP Protocol Stack

OSI Model and TCP/IP Model

Encapsulation
The lower layers use encapsulation to put the protocol data unit (PDU) from the upper layer into its data field and to add headers and trailers that the layer can use to perform its function.

De-Encapsulation
When the data link layer receives the frame, it does the following:
It reads the physical address and other control information provided by the directly connected peer data link layer. It strips the control information from the frame, thereby creating a datagram. It passes the datagram up to the next layer, following the instructions that appeared in the control portion of the frame.

TCP/IP Configuration
To enable TCP/IP on the workstation, it must be configured using the operating system tools.

Testing Connectivity with Ping

A protocol used to test TCP/IP Connectivity Stands for Packet Internet Groper Sends multiple IP packets to destination computer (typically 4 packets) Will receive the same number of replies Information obtained will allow you to ascertain network connectivity

Ping Command
1. ping 127.0.0.1 - This ping is unique and is called an internal loopback test. It verifies the operation of the TCP/IP stack and NIC transmit/receive function. ping IP address of host computer - A ping to a host PC verifies the TCP/IP address configuration for the local host and connectivity to the host. ping default-gateway IP address - A ping to the default gateway verifies whether the router that connects the local network to other networks can be reached. ping remote destination IP address - A ping to a remote destination verifies connectivity to a remote host.

2.

3.

4.

Tracert
Traces the route traffic takes from source to destination

Web Browser and Plug-Ins

Web browsers acts on behalf of a user by Contacting a web server Requesting information Receiving information Displaying the results on a screen Plug-ins is to view special, or proprietary, file types that standard web browsers are not able to display Flash/Shockwave, QuickTime, Real Audio

Network math and IP address

Binary presentation of data

Computers operate with electronic switches that are either "on" or "off", corresponding to 1 or 0. Computers have to translate in order to use decimal numbering.

Number Systems
Knowing what base someone refers to Decimal uses 10 digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Binary uses 2 digits: 0 and 1. Base conventions 101 in base 2 is spoken as one zero one. Working with exponents 103 = 10 X 10 X 10 = 1000 24 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 16 Binary numbers Use principle of place value just as decimal numbers do

ASCII
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is the most commonly used code for representing alpha-numeric data in a computer.

1000011 1001001 1010000 1010100

?

Bits and Bytes

Bits are binary digits. They are either 0s or 1s. In a computer, they are represented by On/Off switches or the presence or absence of electrical charges, light pulses, or radio waves.

Base 10 Numbers

Example:

Base 2 (Binary) Numbers

Computers use Binary notation Information is stored in memory as a 1 (on) 0r 0 (off) Has only 2 symbols 0 and 1 Called Binary digITS Usually represented in groups of 8 BITS Possible combinations of 1s and 0s in 8 bits are 256 (0-255)

Base 2 Calculations 8-Bit Values

Binary Value: 10101010

Start the value row and position row with 1 in the rightmost box. Each subsequent value is the current value times the base (2 in this case).

Binary Value: 11101001

Converting Decimal to Binary

27 128 1

26 64 1

25 32 0

24 16 0

23 8 1

22 4 1

21 2 0

20 1 1

Converting 8-Bit Binary to Decimal

Binary numbers are converted to decimal numbers by multiplying the binary digits by the base number of the system, which is base 2, and raised to the exponent of its position.

Practice with Binary Calculator

Four-Octet Dotted-decimal Representation of 32-Bit Binary Numbers

Currently, addresses assigned to computers on the Internet are 32-bit binary numbers Split the binary number into four groups of eight binary digits. Then convert each group of eight bits, also known as an octet into its decimal equivalent.

Hexadecimal
Computers represent large numbers as Hexadecimal Has 16 symbols, numbers 0-9 and A, B,C, D, E, F representing 10 15.

Converting Binary to Hexadecimal

Notice that all possible combinations of four binary digits have only one hexadecimal symbol, where it takes two in decimal. Remember that hexadecimal is sometimes abbreviated 0x so hex 5D might be written as "0x5D".

Boolean or Binary Logic

Boolean logic is based on digital circuitry that accepts one or two incoming voltages. Based on the input voltages, output voltage is generated. For the purpose of computers the voltage difference is associated as two states, on or off. These two states are in turn associated as a 1 or a 0, which are the two digits in the binary numbering system.

IP Addressing
The 32-bit binary addresses used on the Internet are referred to as Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. An IP Address is a 32 bit address represented in Decimal notation for ease of reading, eg. 192.168.10.143 Has 2 parts
Network portion Host Portion

When IP addresses are assigned to computers, some of the bits on the left side of the 32-bit IP number are network bits, the bits on the right side are host bits.

IP Addresses and Network Masks

The IP address of a computer usually consists of a network, and a host part that represents a particular computer on a particular network. To inform a computer how the 32-bit IP address has been split, a second 32bit number called a subnetwork mask is used. This mask is a guide that indicates how the IP address should be interpreted by identifying how many of the bits are used to identify the network of the computer. Has a Subnet Mask 255.0.0.0 255.255.0.0 255.255.255.0

SubnetMask
A subnet mask will always be all 1s until the network address is identified and then be all 0s from there to the right most bit of the mask. Subnet Mask is used to identify the network portion if the address

Converting the IP address 10.34.23.134 to binary would result in: 00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110 Performing a Boolean AND of the IP address 10.34.23.134 and the subnet mask 255.0.0.0 produces the network address of this host: 00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 00001010.00000000.00000000.00000000 Network Address = 10.0.0.0

Performing a Boolean AND of the IP address 10.34.23.134 and the subnet mask 255.255.0.0 produces the network address of this host:

Answer 00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 00001010.00100010.00000000.00000000 Network Address = 10.34.0.0

Network Address and Broadcast Address

When you fill all the host field with 0s you will have network address, which is used to address the network itself When you fill all the host field with 1s you will have broadcasr address, which is used to reach all hosts in the same network IP address 10.34.23.134 Subnetmask 255.0.0.0 IP address: 00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110 = 10.34.23.134 Network address: 00001010.00000000.00000000.00000000 = 10.0.0.0 Broadcast address: 00001010.11111111. 11111111. 11111111=10.255.255.255

Computer IP Configuration
Open Network from Network and Dialup Connections

Computer IP Configuration

Under Protocols, view Properties of TCP/IP

Computer IP Configuration

Configure IP address

DHCP
Static

View computer address

ipconfig : brief IP configuration ipconfig /all : detail IP configuration ipconfig /renew : renew IP address with DHCP

Lab
PC Network TCP/IP Config Using ping and tracert Binary to decimal conversion Hexadecimal conversion