Temperature

measurements
Maija Ojanen
Licenciate course in
measurement science and technology
8.3.2006
Outline
1. Liquid-in-glass thermometres
2. Bimaterial thermometres
3. Electrical thermometres
4. IR-thermometres
5. Pyrometres
6. Summary
7. Other measurement methods
Liquid-in-glass thermometres
Liquid-in-glass thermometres
The traditional thermometres
Measurement scale from -190 C to +600
C
Used mainly in calibration
Mercury: -39 C +357 C
Spirit: -14 C +78 C
Functionning method
Method is based on the expansion of a
liquid with temperature
The liquid in the bulb is forced up the capillary stem

Thermal expansion:


) 1 (
0
T V V + =
Structure
Causes of inaccuraties
Temperature
differences in the liquid
Glass temperature also
affects
The amount of
immersion (vs.
calibration)
Bimaterial thermometres
Method based on different thermal
expansions of different metals
Other metal expands more than other:
twisting
Inaccurary 1 C
Industry, sauna thermometres
Bimaterial thermometres
Electrical thermometres
Electrical thermometres
Resistive thermometres
Resistivity is temperature dependent



Materials: Platinum, nickel

) 1 ( ) (
0
T R T R o + =
Characteristic resistances
Thermistor thermometres

Semiconductor materials
Based on the temperature dependence of
resistance
Thermal coefficient non-linear, 10 times
bigger than for metal resistor
NTC, (PTC): temperature coefficients sign
Example of a characteristic curve
Limitations of electrical
thermometres
Sensor cables resistance and its temperature
dependency
Junction resistances
Thermal voltages
Thermal noise in resistors
Measurement current
Non-linear temperature dependencies
Electrical perturbations
Inaccuracy at least 0.1 C
Infrared thermometres
Thermal radiation
Every atom and molecule exists in perpetual
motion
A moving charge is associated with an
electric field and thus becomes a radiator
This radiation can be used to determine
object's temperature
Thermal radiation
Waves can be characterized by their
intensities and wavelengths
The hotter the object:
the shorter the wavelength
the more emitted light
Wien's law:
cmK T 2896 . 0
max
=
Planck's law

1
2 1
) (
2
5

=
kT
hc
e
hc
F

Magnitude of radiation at particular

wavelength () and particular temperature
(T).
h is Plancks constant and c speed of light.
Blackbody
An ideal emitter of electromagnetic
radiation
opaque
non-reflective
for practical blackbodies = 0.9
Cavity effect
em-radiation measured from a cavity of an
object
Cavity effect
Emissivity of the cavity increases and
approaches unity
According to Stefan-Boltzmanns law, the
ideal emitters photon flux from area a is


In practice:



4
0
T ao = u
0
u = u c
r
Cavity effect
For a single reflection, effective emissivity
is


Every reflection increases the emyssivity by
a factor (1-)

b b r
c c c ) 1 (
0
=
u
u
=
Cavity effect
Practical blackbodies
Copper most common material
The shape of the cavity defines the
number of reflections
Emissivity can be increased

Detectors
Quantum detectors
interaction of individual photons and
crystalline lattice
photon striking the surface can result to the
generation of free electron
free electron is pushed from valency to
conduction band

Detectors
hole in a valence band serves as a current
carrier
Reduction of resistance

Photons energy


v h E =
Detectors
Thermal detectors
Response to heat resulting from absorption of
the sensing surface
The radiation to opposite direction (from cold
detector to measured object) must be taken
into account

Thermal radiation from detector
Pyrometres
Disappearing filament pyrometer
Radiation from and object in known
temperature is balanced against an unknown
target
The image of the known object (=filament) is
superimposed on the image of target

Pyrometres
The measurer adjusts the current of the
filament to make it glow and then disappear
Disappearing means the filament and object
having the same temperature
Disapperaring filament pyrometer
Pyrometres
Two-color pyrometer
Since emissivities are not usually known, the
measurement with disappearing filament
pyrometer becomes impractical
In two-color pyrometers, radiation is detected
at two separate wavelengths, for which the
emissivity is approximately equal

Two-colour pyromerer
Pyrometers
The corresponding optical transmission
coefficients are
x
and
y

Displayed temperature


1
5
5
ln
1 1

|
|
.
|

\
|
u
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
y x
x y
x y
c
C T



Measurements
Stefan-Boltzmanns law with manipulation:



Magnitude of thermal radiation flux, sensor
surfaces temperature and emissivity must be
known before calculation
Other variables can be considered as
constants in calibration
4
4
s
c
A
T T
occ
u
+ =
Error sources
Errors in detection of the radiant flux or
reference temperature
Spurious heat sources
Heat directly of by reflaction into the optical
system
Reflectance of the object (e.g. 0.1)

But does not require contact to surface
measured!
Pyroelectric thermometres
Generate electric charce in response to
heat flux
Crystal materials
Comparable to piezoelectric effect: the
polarity of crystals is re-oriented
Summary
Only some temperature measurement
methods presented
Examples of phenomenons used: thermal
expansion, resistances thermal
dependency, radiation
The type of meter depends on
Measurement objects properties
Temperature
More temperature measurement
possibilities
Thermocouples
Semiconductor thermometres
Temperature indicators
Crayons etc.
Manometric (gas pressure) sensors
Questions?