Circulatory System and Gas Exchange

Crestley Wong Kiran Varghese Connor Fong Ajay Nair Sharma

Transport Systems Connect Organs with Cells

Diffusion alone is not enough for transporting chemicals in animals. The time it takes for a substance to diffuse is proportional to the square distance the substance will travel. Circulatory system ensures no substance will difuse far to enter or leave the cell.

Most Invertebrates Have either:

Gastrovascular Cavity Hydra, Cnidarians, Planarians, flatworms. A body wall encloses a central gastrovascular cavity, which serves the funcitons of digestion and distributions of substances throughought the body. Both inner and outer layers of the tissue are bathed by fluid. Thin branches of the vacity extend into the tentacles of the organims. Only the cells of the inner layer have diret access to nutrients.

OR

Open/Closed Circulatory System. Open C.S: Blood bathes the internal organs directly. Blood and interstitial fluid is collectively called hemolymph. A heart(s) pump the hemolymph into a system of interconnected sinuses, spaces that surround the organism. When heart relaxes, it draws in hemolymph through pores called ostia. Closed C.S: Blood confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid. Heart(s) pump blood into large vessels that branch into smaller ones coursing through the organs.

3 Parts of a C.S. System

Blood Heart
1 or 2 atrium/atria, the chambers that receive blood returning to the heart. 1 or 2 ventricles, the chambers pumping blood out of the heart.

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Blood Vessels

Arteries carry blood away from the heart to organs throughout the body.

Arteries branch into arterioles, small vessels that convey blood to the capillaries.

Capillaries are microscopic vessels with thin porous walls.

Gas exchange occurs across capillary walls. Networks of capillaries are called capillary beds, and inhabit each tissue. At their end, cappilaries form into venules.

Venules form into veins.

Veins return blood to the heart

Different Animals, different C.S.

Fish- 2 chambers: 1 atrium, 1 ventricle.

Blood goes from ventricle to gills, where gas exchange occurs.

Gill capillaries converge into a vessel that carries the oxygen-rich blood throughout the body. Blood returns in veins back to atrium. Amphibians- 3 chambers: 2 atria, 1 ventricle. Pulmocutaneous circuit: Leads blood to gas exchange tissues. Blood gets oxygen and pumped to Systemic circuit: Carries oxygen-rich blood to all body organs and returns it to right atrium via veins. This is called double circulation, which ensures blood flow to brain, muscles, and other organs because the blood is pumped a second time after it loses pressure in the capillary beds.

Mammalian Heart

Left side- Oxygen-rich blood Right side- Oxygen-poor blood 2 atria: Thin walls, collection chambers for returning blood, pump blood short distance. 2 ventricles: Thick walls, very powerful. Left ventricle extra powerful because it pumps blood to all body organs. Each valve has a flap, preventing blood backflow. Atrioventricular (AV) valve: Between each atrium and ventricle. Anchored by strong fibers. Pressure generated from ventricles close the AV valve.

Semilunar valves: Located at the two exits of the heart. The blood thats pumped into arteries must leave these valves. Pressure from ventricles open/close the valves. Right side of heart: oxygen-poor blood. Left side of heart: oxygen-rich blood. One complete sequence of pumping/filling is called cardiac cycle. The contraction phase is called systole, and a relaxation phase is called diastole.

Maintaining the Hearts Rhythmic Beat

Certain cells of the heart are self-excitable; they can contract without signal from the nervous system. Region called the sinoatrial (SA) node, or pacemaker, maintains the rhythm by setting the rate at which the cardiac muscle cells contract. Located in the wall of the right atrium. Generates electrical impulses through the atria walls, causing them to contract in unison. The impulses pass off to the atrioventricular (AV) node, which delays the impulses to ensure the atria will fully contract and empty before the ventricles do.

SA Node

Influenced by different cues: 2 sets of nerves oppose each other in adjusting heart rate. Hormones: secreted into blood by glands. Body temperature: increase in temperature, increases in heart rate (ex: fever) Exercise.

Blood Vessel Tissue

Arteries have 3 layers: Outside: layer of connective tissue with elastic fibers. Middle: Smooth muscle and more elastic fibers. Lining: an endothelium, a single layer of flat cells, provides a smooth surface minimizing the resitance to blood. Capillaries only have a layer of endothelium. Dut to gas exchange. Arteries have ticker middle and out layers than veins. Due to varying amounts/pressure. Thinner walled veins convey blood back to the heart at low velocity and pressure.

Arteries: To Cap. Veins: From Cap.

Blood Flow Velocity

Law of Conformity: Fluid will stream through narrower segments of pipe faster than it flows through wider segments. Total cross-sectional area of the pipes determines flow rate. Blood slows down as it enters the arterioles from arteries and flows slowest in the capillary beds.

Because each artery conveys blood to so many capillaries, the total (cumulative) diameter of the vessels is larger in capillary beds.

Blood Pressure

The hydrostatic force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel is called blood pressure. Pressure greater in arteries than veins. Fluid goes from areas of HIGH pressure TO areas of LOW pressure When the heart contracts, blood enters the arteries faster than it leaves, and the vessels stretch as a result. Blood Pressure is determined partly by cardiac output and partly by the degree of peripheral resistance to blood flow.

Capillary Function

5% - 10% of the bodys capillaries have blood flowing through them. Capillaries in the major organs are filled to capacity with blood.

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Two Mechanisms

Two mechanisms regulate the distribution of blood in capillary beds. Contraction of the smooth muscle layer in the wall of an arteriole constricts the arteriole, decreasing blood flow. When the muscle relaxes the arteriole dilates, allowing blood to enter the capillaries. Rings of smooth muscle called precapillary sphincters control the flow between arterioles and venules.

Capillary Exchange

The transfer of substances between the blood and the intestinal fluid takes place across the thin endothelial walls of the capillaries. Some substances may be carried across an endothelial cell in vesicles that form by endocytosis on one side of the cell and then release their contents by exocytosis on the opposite side. About 85% of the fluid that leaves the blood at the arterial end of a capillary bed reenters from the intestinal fluid at the venous en, and the remaining 15% of the fluid lost from capillaries is eventually returned to the blood by the vessels of the lympathetic system.

The Lymphatic System

Lost fluids and proteins are returned to the blood via the lymphatic system. Fluids enter by diffusing into tiny lymph capillaries that are intermingled among the blood capillaries. The system help defend the body against infection and maintains the volume and protein concentration.

Blood as a Connective tissue

Blood consists of several kinds of cells suspended in a liquid matrix called plasma The cellular elements occupy about 45% of the volume of blood.

Plasma

Blood plasma is about 90% water. Consists of water and dissolved ions, which help maintain osmotic balance. Plasma proteins act as buffers against pH changes, help maintain the osmotic balance between blood and intestinal fluid, and contribute to blood viscosity.

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Cellular Elements

RBCs, WBCs, and Platelets. RBC Biconcave disk Mammal RBCs lack nuclei, mitochondria and generate their ATP exclusively by anaerobic metabolism. Main function is to carry oxygen. Contains about 250 million molecules of hemoglobin.

WBC
Five types: monocytes, nuetrophils, basophils, eosinophils, and lymphocytes. Main function is to fight infections. Monocytes and nuetrophils are phagocytes.

Platelets
Fragments of cells. No nuclei and originate as cytoplasm fragments of bone marrow. Functions in blood clotting

Stem Cells and Replacement

Cellular

elements are replaced constantly. They develop from a common source, pluripotent stem cells. RBC production is controlled by a negative feedback mechanism.

Blood Clotting
Fibrinogen is the inactive sealant present in out blood. Once activated it turns into fibrin which aggregates into threads that form the fabric of the clot. The clotting mechanism begins with the release of clotting factors from platelets.

Cardiovascular Diseases

Heart attack

The death of cardiac muscle tissue in the heart. The death of nervous tissue in the brain. High blood pressure.

Stroke

Hypertension

Gas exchange
Gas exchange is the uptake of molecular oxygen (O) from the environment and the discharge of carbon dioxide (CO) to the environment . Animals require a continuous supply of 0 for cellular respiration. They must also dispose of CO, the waste product of cellular respiration. The source of oxygen, called the respiratory medium, is air for terrestrial animals and water for aquatic animals. The part of an animal where oxygen from the environment diffuses into living cells and carbon dioxide diffuses out is called respiratory surface. The respiratory surface is moist.

Gills
Gills are variously shaped outfoldings of the body surface specialized for gas exchange. Gills must be very efficient to obtain oxygen from water. Ventilation increases the flow of the respiratory medium over the respiratory surface. Ventilation brings a fresh supply of oxygen and removes carbon dioxide expelled from the gills The arrangement of capillaries in the gills of a fish also enhances gas exchange. Countercurrent exchange is a process where blood flows through the capillary and becomes more and more loaded with oxygen. It simultaneously encounters water with ever higher oxygen concentrations because the water is just beginning its passage over the gills. This means that along the entire length of the capillary, there is a diffusion gradient favoring the transfer of oxygen from the water to the blood.

Tracheal System
Since O and CO diffuse much faster in air than in water, respiratory surfaces exposed to air do not have to be ventilated as thoroughly as gills. The trachael system, which is made up of air tubes that branch throughout the body, is one variation on the theme of a folded internal respiratory surface. The largest tubes, called tracheae, open to the outside. The finest branches extend to the surface of nearly every cell, where gas is exchanged by diffusion across the moist epithelium that lines the terminal ends of the tracheal system. Diffusion brings enough O from the air into the tracheal system and removes enough CO to support cellular respiration.

Lungs

The lungs are restricted to one location The gap between the respiratory surface of a lung and the other parts of the body must be bridged by the circulatory system, which transports oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. Lungs have a dense net of capillaries just under the epithelium, which serves as the respiratory surface

Mammalian Respiratory Systems

A system of branching ducts conveys air to the lungs. Air enters through the nostrils and is then filtered by hairs. The nasal cavity leads to the pharynx, an intersection where the paths for air and food cross. When food is swallowed, the larnyx (upper part of the respiratory tract) moves upward and tips the epiglottis over the glottis (the opening of the windpipe) When air is exhaled, it rushes by a pair of vocal cords in the larynx, and sounds are produced when voluntary muscles in the voicebox are tensed, stretching the cords so they vibrate. Continued next slide.

 From the larynx, air passes into the trachea, or windpipe. The trachea forks into two bronchi, one leading to each lung The bronchus branches repeatedly into finer and finer tubes called bronchioles The epithelium lining the major branches of the respiratory tree is covered by cilia and a thin film of mucus, which helps clean the respiratory system. At the tips of the bronchioles are air sacs called alveoli

SO REMEMBER

Lungs

Nostrils

Pharynx

Larynx Trachea

Bronchi

Bronchioles

Alveoli

Ventilating the Lungs

Positive pressure breathing is when air is pushed down the windpipe Negative pressure breathing is when air is pulled down the lungs The volume of the lungs increases as a result of contraction of the rib muscles and the diaphragm, a sheet of skeletal muscles that forms the bottom wall of the chest cavity Contraction of the rib muscles expands the rib cage by pulling the ribs upward and the breastbone outward. At the same time, the chest cavity expands as the diaphragm contracts and descends like a piston All of these changes increase the lung volume. So the air pressure within the alveoli becomes lower than atmospheric pressure The volume of air an animal inhales and exhales with each normal breath is called tidal volume Birds have parabronchi, which are tiny channels through which air flows continuously in one direction

Breathing Control Centers

Our breathing control centers are located in two regions of the brain, the medulla oblongata and the pons Aided by the control center in the pons, the medullas center sets the basic breathing rhythm. The medulla monitors the CO level of the blood and regulates the amount of CO our alveoli dispose when we exhale. When the O level in blood is severely depressed, O sensors in the aorta and carotid arteries in the neck send alarm signals to the breathing control centers, and the centers respond by increasing the breathing rate The breathing center responds to a variety of nervous and chemical signals, adjusting the rate and depth of breathing to meet the changing demands of the body.

Partial Pressure
For a gas, whether present in air or dissolved in water, diffusion depends on differences in a quantity called partial pressure

Oxygen Transport

Very little dissolved oxygen is transported in blood Oxygen is carried through respiratory pigments in most animals These pigments are proteins that get their color from metal atoms in the blood

Hemocyanin is one that has copper binding the oxygen, causing bluish blood

Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin is the respiratory pigment of most vertebrates It consists of 4 subunits, each with a cofactor called heme that has iron in the center

The iron binds the oxygen to the pigment, allowing one hemoglobin to carry 4 oxygen molecules Loading and unloading depends on the cooperation of the subunits

Cooperative Binding

Cooperative oxygen binding is evident in the dissociation curve Even the slightest change in oxygen partial pressures causes hemoglobin to load or unload a large amount of oxygen Since hemoglobin is a protein, its conformation is sensitive to environmental factors

Carbon Dioxide Transport

Carbon dioxide expelled from respiring cells diffuses into blood plasma, then into red blood cells Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid, then dissociates into a hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ion

The hydrogen ions attach to hemoglobin and do not affect the pH of blood

The bicarbonate ions diffuse into plasma When blood flows through the lungs, the process is reversed and converts bicarbonate into CO2

Deep Diving Mammals

The Weddell seal can stay submerged in water for about 20 min. Its capacity for holding oxygen is about twice that of humans, holding most of its oxygen in blood rather than lungs Another adaptation is a large spleen, allowing many red blood cells to be loaded with oxygen They have a higher concentration of myoglobin, an oxygen storing protein, than most other mammals They are able to decrease their heart rates and restrict blood supply to muscles during long dives

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Fin!

GROUP QUIZ
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1. Which of the following statement(s) is true for an insect? I. These animals breathe using a system of trachea. II. Insect tracheoles are not filled with fluid. III. Every body cell is close to a tracheole. a) b) c) d) e)

I and III only II only I and II only II and III only I, II, and III

2.

Which of the following statements is (are) true about countercurrent flow? I. It takes place in the respiratory systems of all vertebrates. II. It is the movement of blood and water in opposite directions across gills to ensure maximum diffusion of oxygen. III. It ensures that maximum transfer of oxygen to the blood takes place.

a) b) c) d) e)

I only II only III only I, II, and III II and III only

3. The___________prevents food and liquid from entering the____________. a) trachea; bronchioles b) epiglottis; trachea c) pharynx; trachea d) epiglottis; diaphragm e) bronchi; bronchioles

4. What are the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide at sea level?

a) 160 mm mercury and 0.23 mm mercury b) 160 mm mercury and 23 mm mercury c) 16 mm mercury and 0.23 mm mercury d) 1.6 mm mercury and 0.23 mm mercury

5.

Gas exchange depends on: a) Active transport b) Countercurrent flow c) Internal organs close to the body surface d) Gill or lungs e) Diffusion

6. A hemoglobin molecule is made up of: a) Four peptide subunits, each bound to a heme unit b) Four peptide subunits, and a single central heme unit c) Four heme units and a central globin unit d) Two peptide subunits, each bound to a heme unit e) Two peptide subunits and a single central heme unit

7.Which of the following statement(s) is true for an animal with an open circulatory system? I. These animals have a tube-shaped heart II. These animals have an extensive network of blood vessels III. The organs of these animals are directly bathed in hemolymph a) b) c) d) e)

I only II only I and III only I and II only I, II and III

8. Which of the following has a heart with a single atrium and a single ventricle? I. Amphibian II. Bird III. Fish
a) b) c) d)

e)

I only II only I and III only III only I, II, and III

9.

The pulmonary vein: a) Takes blood from the heart to the lungs b) Takes blood from the lungs to the body organs c) Takes blood from the body organs to the heart d) Takes blood from the kidneys to the venous system returning blood to the heart e) Takes blood from the lungs to the heart

10. Which of the following is (are) true of capillaries? I. They have muscular walls II. They are surrounded by layers of elastic tissue III. Their walls are only a single cell layer thick a) b) c) d) e)

I only I and II only I and III only II and III only III only

11. Which of the following is not usually considered to be a risk factor for heart disease? a) High blood pressure b) Cholesterol level c) Moderate activity d) Smoking e) Weight