Process Theories Continuing from last class

Where as content theories Address Question of What

motivates. Process motivation. They:

Deal

Theories

address

how

of

With Cognitive antecedents that go into motivation or effort. The way the cognitive antecedents of an individual relate to one another.

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I.

II.

Allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously Intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease overall level of motivation. Conversely: Elimination of extrinsic rewards can produce shift from external to an internal explanation.

Limitations: a) Study conducted on students, real life extrinsic rewards mean a lot of status symbol, importance in organization. b) Very high intrinsic motivation levels are strongly resistant to the detrimental impact of extrinsic rewards. c) Dull tasks extrinsic rewards appear to increase intrinsic rewards.
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Therefore Cognitive Evaluation Theory may be relevant to that set of organization jobs that fall in between those that are neither extremely dull nor extremely interesting.

GOAL SETTING THEORY

The theory that specific and stretchable goals with

feedback lead to higher performance. Specific Hard goals produce higher level of output. Four other important Factors influence Goal Performance relationship:
i. ii. iii. iv.

Goal Commitment Adequate Self Efficacy Task Characteristics National Culture

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 Goal Commitment: Goals when made public When individual has internal locus of control. When goals are self set rather than assigned. Self Efficacy: The competence of a person to

do a job. An individuals belief that he or she is

capable of performing a task. Higher Self Efficacy More confidence in your ability to succeed.
so Difficult Circumstances -> Higher Effort
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 Task Characteristic:
Goals: Positive effect on performance when tasks

are simple rather than complex Well learned rather than novel Independent rather than interdependent (Group Goals preferred)
National Culture: More suitable to US, Canada where
Employees reasonably independent (not too high a

score on power distance) Management & Employees seek challenging goals (Low on the uncertainly avoidance) Performance is considered important by both (High in quantity of life). In opposite to above Chile & Portugal have different characteristic.
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 Behavior is function of its consequences.

The theory ignores the inner state of the individual

and concentrates solely on what happens to a person when the person takes action. Lower productivity can also be explained in terms of goals, in terms of
(i) Goal

(ii) Equity

(iii)Expectations

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 Observed although task was goal directed it was not goal

that provided motivation. It was task itself. The tasks were so consuming that people had no attention left to think about anything irrelevant or worry about problems. Intrinsic motivation is achieved where people experience feeling of:
Choice: Able to select task that make sense to you & perform

them in their own way. Meaningfulness: The purpose of tasks is worthy and aligned with layer scheme of things/goals individual. Progress: Making significant advancement in achieving tasks purpose.
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 Individuals compare their job inputs and outputs

(outcomes) with others within organization are outside organization; and then respond to eliminate inequalities.
Four Moderating Variable:

Gender 2. Length of Tenure 3. Level of Organization 4. Amount of Education & Professionalism

1.
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 When employee perceive inequity tries to reduce it either:

Change Inputs (Dont exert as much effort) II. Change Outputs: (Piece rate workers can increase their pay by producing higher quantity of lower quality) III. Distort perception of self: (I thought, I worked at moderate pace, but now I realize I worked harder than others) IV. Distort Perception of Others V. Leave the field (quit Job) VI. Change Referent: I may not be doing as much as A but doing better than B.
I.

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 Therefore we can say:

Payment by Time Over rewarded employees will produce more than other employees. b) Payment by Quantity Over rewarded employees will produce fewer but with very high quality. c) Payment by Time Under rewarded produce less or poorer quality. d) Payment by Quantity Under rewarded are in large nos. with lower quality.
a)

Above support by research with qualification

I. II.

Inequities created by overpayment not significant impact. Not all people are equity sensitive.
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 Distribute Justice: Perceived fairness of the amount and

allocation of rewards among individuals. This will increase job satisfaction and Organizational Commitment.
Procedural Justice: Perceived fairness of the process used to

determine the distribution of rewards. It increases:

i. ii. iii.

Organizational commitment Trust in Boss Lessons intention to quit.

Research

Distributive satisfaction.

Justice:

Increases

employees

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Individual Effort

Individual Performance

Organization Rewards

Personal Goals

Effort Performance Relationship: Probability perceived by Individual that exerting a given amount will lead to performance. Performance Reward Relationship: Degree to which individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to desired outcome. Reward Personal Goal relationship: Degree to which Org. Reward satisfaction individual personal goals and attractiveness of rewards for individuals.

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The theory is defined as: The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on strength of expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to individual. The Key to expectancy theory is the understanding of an individuals goals and setting performance of rewards system accordingly. The Theory propose to explain different level of efforts from the same person under different circumstances.
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1.

Control Theory: Two Versions

A. Control as Cognitive Phenomena: Individuals ability to control his life- Aspects associated with his job. More personal control- More ability to handle unpleasant events with poise and experiences. Less stressed- Enhance job satisfaction and reduce absenteeism.
B. Control as management function : Strategic control by human resources is as important as input and output of organization.
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2.
Agency theory
Concept: That in business principal (Owner, Board of Directors, Controlling managers) engages another person - Agents to perform some activities on his behalf . In practice sometimes there is conflict in interests of both resolved by establishing rewards or incentives for Agents when they achieve desired results. Various rewards like pay for performance, Compensation contracts etc. are worked out.

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 To increase productivity & motivation use design/redesign

jobs in such a way that takes in to account human behavioral aspects. To break monotony based classical theory of specialization of work to introduce the following concept in job design. 1) Combination of tasks :- measures for skill variety, task identity & interdependence instead of very small part, complete task of combination of various small parts done for break monotony & bring task identification. Team formed members rotate jobs at regular intervals ability of team members increase.
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2. Vertical loading of jobs : Apart from their work employees given adequate

responsibility of planning, scheduling & executing activities themselves and made completely accountable for jobs. Employees made to understand the importance & implications of jobs they handle so that they realize significance of it. The above measures enable the employees to experience meaningfulness & responsibility at their jobs, increasing the motivation.

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Feedback helps to know employees about whether they are on right track & sensitize them towards importance performance and their own progress. This motivates them on their job.

Formation of Natural Teams :Informal, self motivated teams formed within existing structure to facilitate interaction among various group of employees which enhances skill variety & builds team spirit through emotional bonding.

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