Chapter 1 - Introduction to Electronics

Introduction

Microelectronics

Integrated Circuits (IC) Technology

Silicon Chip

Microcomputer / Microprocessor

Discrete Circuits

Signals

Signal Processing
Transducers


http://www.eas.asu.edu/~midle/jdsp/jdsp.html

Signals


Voltage Sources




Current Sources



Thevenin & Norton


http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/ClickDevice/refdir.html
http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/Circuit_Design_Lab/circuit_design_lab.html
http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/CircuitElements/vcvs.html
Signals


Voltage Sources




Current Sources



http://www.clarkson.edu/~svoboda/eta/ClickDevice/super.html
http://javalab.uoregon.edu/dcaley/circuit/Circuit_plugin.html

Signals


Voltage Sources




Current Sources



Frequency Spectrum of Signals


Fourier Series



Fourier Transform



Fundamental and Harmonics


http://www.educatorscorner.com/experiments/spectral/SpecAn3.shtml


x
frequency
time
Def i ni ng t he Si gnal or Func t i on t o be Anal y z ed:
f t ( ) sin e
0
t ( ) u t ( ) .2 cos 7 e
0
t ( ) :=
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2
0
2
f t ( )
t
Frequency Spectrum of Signals


Fourier Series




http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/fourier2/index.html

Frequency Spectrum of Signals


Fourier Series




Four i er Ser i es ( Tr i gonomet r i c f or m) of f ( t ) :
a
0
1
T
0
T
t f t ( )
(
(
]
d := a
0
0 = av er age v al ue
a
n
2
T
0
T
t f t ( ) cos n e
0
t ( )
(
(
]
d := c os i ne c oef f i c i ent s
n v ar y i ng f r om 1 t o N
10 20 30 40 50 60
0
0.1
a
n
0
n
Frequency Spectrum of Signals


Fourier Series




b
n
2
T
0
T
t f t ( ) sin n e
0
t ( )
(
(
]
d := s i ne c oef f i c i ent s
10 20 30 40 50 60
0
0.5
1
b
n
0
n
Frequency Spectrum of Signals


Fourier Series




Rear r angi ng t ot al ex pr es s i on t o i nc l ude a0 i n t he c ompl et e s pec t r um
a1
n
a
n
:= b1
n
b
n
:=
c1
n
1
2
a1
n
( )
2
b1
n
( )
2
+ := c
0
a
0
:=
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0
0.2
0.4
c1
n
0
n
Frequency Spectrum of Signals


Fourier Series




Rec ons t r uc t i on of t i me- domai n f unc t i on f r om t r i g. Four i er s er i es :
f2 t ( )
n1
a
n1
cos n1 e
0
t ( ) b
n1
sin n1 e
0
t ( ) +
( )

a
0
+ :=
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2
0
2
f2 t ( )
f t ( )
t
Frequency Spectrum of Signals


Fourier Series




Four i er Ser i es ( Compl ex For m) of f ( t ) :
w
n
1
2
N c +
|

\
|
|
.
n + :=
C
n
1
T
0
t
t f t ( ) e
i w
n
e
0
t

(
(
]
d :=
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0
0.02
0.04
C
n
0
n
Four i er Tr ans f or m of f ( t ) gi v es :
e
1
2
N c +
|

\
|
|
.
1
2
N c + .25 +
|

\
|
|
.
,
1
2
N .. :=
F e ( )
0
t
t f t ( ) e
i e t

(
(
]
d :=
30 20 10 0 10 20 30
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
F e ( )
0
e
The magni t ude of F( e) y i el ds t he c ont i nuous f r equenc y s pec t r um, and i t i s
obv i ous l y of t he f or m of t he s ampl i ng f unc t i on. The v al ue of F( 0) i s A t.
A pl ot of | F( e) | as a f unc t i on of e does not i ndi c at e t he magni t ude of t he
v ol t age pr es ent at any gi v en f r equenc y . What i s i t , t hen? Ex ami nat i on of
F e ( ) s hows t hat , i f f ( t ) i s a v ol t age wav ef or m, t hen F e ( ) i s di mens i onal l y
" v ol t s per uni t f r equenc y , " a c onc ept t hat may be s t r ange t o mos t of us .
Frequency Spectrum of Signals





http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/fourier2/index.html

Frequency Spectrum of Signals





http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/listen/music1.html

http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/phasorlecture2/indexphasorlect2.htm

Analog and Digital Signals


Sampling Rate http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/sampling/index.html


Binary number system
http://scholar.hw.ac.uk/site/computing/activity11.asp


Analog-to-Digital Converter
http://www.astro-med.com/knowledge/adc.html
http://www.maxim-ic.com/design_guides/English/AD_CONVERTERS_21.pdf

Digital-to-Analog Converter

http://www.maxim-ic.com/ADCDACRef.cfm
Vin Vout
Voltage gain (Av) = Vout/Vin
Linear - output is proportional to input
Amplifiers
Current amplifiers current gain (Ai) = Iout/Iin


Power amplifiers power gain (Ap) = Pout/Pin
Amplifiers

Signal Amplification

Distortion

Non-Linear Distortion

Symbols

Gains Voltage, Power, Current


Decibels

Amplifier Power Supplies
Efficiency
Volt age_Gain A
v
( )
v
o
v
i
Power_Gain A
p
( )
load_power P
L
( )
input_power P
I
( )
v
o
i
o

v
I
i
I

Current_Gain A
i
( )
i
o
i
I
A
p
A
v
A
i

Volt age_gain_in_decibels 20 log A

v
( )
dB
Colt age_gain_in_decibels 20 log A
i
( )
dB
Power_gain_in_decibels 10 log A
p
( )
dB
Gain in terms of decibels
Typical values of voltage gain, 10, 100, 1000 depending on size of input signal

Decibels often used when dealing with large ranges or multiple stages
Av in decibels (dB) = 20log|Av|
Ai in decibels (dB) = 20log|Ai|
Ap in decibels (dB) = 10log|Ap|
Amplifiers
Av = 10 000 20log|10 000| = 80dB
Av = 1000 20log|1000| = 60dB
Av = 100 20log|100| = 40dB
Av = 10 20log|10| = 20dB
Av = -10 20log|-10| = 20dB

Av = 0.1 20log|0.1| = -20dB

Av negative - indicates a phase change (no change in dB)
dB negative - indicates signal is attenuated
Amplifiers

Example 1.1
P
L
40.5 = mW
P
I
V
irms
I
irms
:= P
I
0.05 = mW
A
p
P
L
P
I
:= A
p
810 =
W
W
A
p
10 log 810 ( ) := A
p
29.085 = dB
P
dc
10 9.5 10 9.5 + := P
dc
190 = mW
P
dissipat ed
P
dc
P
I
+ P
L
:=
P
dissipat ed
149.55 = mW
q
P
L
P
dc
100 := q 21.316 = %
A
v
9
1
:= A
v
9 = I
i
0.0001 :=
A
v
20 log 9 ( ) := A
v
19.085 = dB
I
o
9
1000
:=
I
o
9 10
3
= A A
i
I
o
I
i
:= A
i
90 =
A
A
A
i
20 log A
i
( )
:= A
i
39.085 = dB V
orms
9
2
:= I
orms
9
2
:=
P
L
V
orms
I
orms
:= V
irms
1
2
:= I
irms
0.1
2
:=
An amplifier transfer characteristic that is linear except for output saturation.
Amplifiers

Saturation
An amplifier transfer
characteristic that is linear
except for output
saturation.
An amplifier transfer characteristic that shows considerable nonlinearity. (b) To obtain
linear operation the amplifier is biased as shown, and the signal amplitude is kept small.
Amplifiers

Non-Linear Transfer Characteristics and Biasing
Circuit model of a voltage amplifier
EPOLY is a dependent source is SPICE; a
voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS)

EPOLY has a gain of Avo

The input to EPOLY is the voltage across
Ri
Vout = Avo Vin
Ri = input resistance
Ro = output resistance
+
Vout
-
+
Vin
-
I = 0
Amplifiers
Voltage amplifier with input source and load
What should we design Ro to be?

Av = Vout/Vin = Avo RL/(RL + Ro)

Let Ro < < RL to make Av maximum

Ideally Ro = 0
+
Vout
-
+
Vin
-
Avo - gain of VCVS only, o indicates
output is open

Av - gain of entire circuit

Av changes with circuit, Avo does not!
Amplifiers
Input resistance of amplifier circuit
+
Vout
-
+
Vin
-
What should we design Rin to be?

Vin = Vs Ri/(Ri + Rs)

Let Rin >> Rs to make Vin = Vs

Ideally Rin = infinity
If Rin = infinity, then all of Vs
makes it to the the amplifier;
otherwise part of the signal is lost
Amplifiers
Basic characteristics of ideal amplifier
For maximum voltage transfer

Rout = 0

Rin = infinity


Amplifiers
Amplifiers

Example 1.2
v
I
0.6 0.61 , 0.69 .. :=
v
o
v
I
( )
10 10
11
e
40 v
I

:=
0.58 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.7
0
5
10
v
o
v
I
( )
v
I
v
I
0.673 = v
I
Find v
I
( )
:=
v
o
10 10
11
e
40 v
I

given v
o
5 :=
v
I
0 :=
Lplus 10 = Lplus v
o
0 ( ) :=
v
o
v
I
( )
10 10
11
e
40 v
I

:=
v
I
0 :=
v
I
0.69 = v
I
Find v
I
( )
:=
v
o
10 10
11
e
40 v
I

given
inital value v
I
0 := v
o
0.3 :=
Lminus 0.3 :=
Amplifiers

Example 1.2
Amplifiers

Example 1.2
highlight equation use symbolics
then diff erentiate
10 10
11
e
40 v
I

1
2500000000
exp 40 v
I

( )

1
2500000000
exp 40 0.673 ( ) 196.457 =
Circuit Models For Amplifiers

Voltage Amplifiers

Common Models


Show example on board
Circuit Models For Amplifiers

Example 1.3

Class assignment

Circuit Models For Amplifiers

Other Amplifiers

Current

Transconductance

Transresistance

Circuit Models For Amplifiers

Example 1.4

Large-signal equivalent-circuit models of the npn BJT operating in the active mode.
Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Bandwidth



Single-Time Constant Networks

http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/plots/FOC.html

http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/acWorkout/Switched_RCandRL.html




Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Bandwidth

RC Circuits Class Exercise

(a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the low-pass type.
Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Bandwidth

Frequency Response of Amplifiers



Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Bandwidth

(a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the high-pass type.
Frequency Response of Amplifiers



Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Example 1.5

Class assignment

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Classification of Amplifiers

Based on Frequency Response

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Exercise 1.6

Class assignment

The Digital Logic Inverter

Function

Transfer Characteristics

Noise Margins

The Digital Logic Inverter

Function

Transfer Characteristics

Noise Margins

The Digital Logic Inverter

Inverter Implementation