AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.

Rules of thumb



General Briefing G2

V2.0
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Content G2
1 in 60 rule

Speed factor, ground factor, air factor

Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient

Rate of climb, angle of climb, climb
gradient

Descent planning

Wind and time corrections
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Content G2
1 in 60 rule

Speed factor, ground factor, air factor

Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient

Rate of climb, angle of climb, climb
gradient

Descent planning

Wind and time corrections
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
1 in 60 rule
Most angles are defined in degrees, but you can define an angle
also in radians (rad).

For an angle of one radian the arc length along the edge of the
circle is equal in length to the radius.


Mathematics
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
1 in 60 rule
Circumference of a circle = 2 x x r

2 x (6,28) radii in the circumference of a circle

2 x radians in a circle, in 360

Conclusion: 1 rad = 360 / 2 x = 57,3 60




Mathematics
60
r
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
1 in 60 rule
1 rad 60 with arc length = radius

For an angle of 1, arc length radius / 60





Mathematics
1
not to scale
r
r / 60
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
1 in 60 rule
The 1 in 60 rule
1
60 NM
1 NM
1
1 NM
100ft
6000ft
3
1 NM
300ft
Standard ILS
not to scale
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
1 in 60 rule
Exercises
A
B

at 60 NM, 3 B NM ?
at 15 NM, 5 B NM ?
at 25 NM, 2 B NM ?
at 1 NM, 3 B ft ?
at 10 NM, 3 B ft ?
at 5 NM, 4 B ft ?
at 60 NM, 2 NM off ?
at 12 NM, 4 NM off ?
at 20 NM, 6 NM off ?
at 1 NM, 200ft off ?
at 5 NM, 2000ft off ?
at 6 NM, 1800ft off ?
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
1 in 60 rule
Exercises
A
B

at 60 NM, 3 B 3 NM
at 15 NM, 5 B 1,25 NM
at 25 NM, 2 B 0,8 NM
at 1 NM, 3 B 300 ft
at 10 NM, 3 B 3000 ft
at 5 NM, 4 B 2000 ft
at 60 NM, 2 NM off 2
at 12 NM, 4 NM off 20
at 20 NM, 6 NM off 18
at 1 NM, 200ft off 2
at 5 NM, 2000ft off 4
at 6 NM, 1800ft off 3
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
1 in 60 rule
Exercises
Q. You are on a VFR navigation, flying a leg from point A to point
B (distance 20 NM). Halfway between A and B you verify your
position with a landmark and with the chart you notice that you
drifted 2 NM off track. What is your drift angle?
drift angle 12
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
1 in 60 rule
Exercises
Q. You are on a VFR navigation, flying a leg from point D to point
E (distance 35 NM) at 120kts. 6 minutes after passing point D,
you verify your position with a landmark and with the chart you
notice that you drifted 3 NM off track. What is your drift angle?
drift angle 15
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
1 in 60 rule
Exercises
Q. Airport elevation is 1500ft, mountain ridge (top 5500ft) at 20NM
from airport. What minimum angle do we need to pass the ridge
without any margin?
1500ft
5500ft
20NM
minimum angle 2
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
1 in 60 rule
Exercises
Q. 2 NM after the departure end of the runway is a building
extending up to 400ft. You pass the end of the runway at 100ft
during your take-off. What angle of climb do we need to pass the
building with at least 500ft clearance?
required angle = 4
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
1 in 60 rule
Exercises
Q. We want to follow a 3 descent path from 12500ft to 2500ft.
How many miles do we need to descent to 2500ft.
33 NM
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
1 in 60 rule
Exercises
Q. How many nautical miles is the green segment of this DME arc?
Procedure is flown at 120 KTAS.
R090
12DME arc
turn radius = TAS/200
7,4 NM
Arc distance between R050 and R090 = 8.0NM
Turn radius = 0.6NM
Green segment = 8.0 0.6 = 7.4 NM
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
1 in 60 rule
Q. At which altitude approximately should you start the descent
at the FAF arriving via FLORA?


Exercises
2920 ft
Distance threshold to FAF = 8.8NM 9NM
1 in 60 rule: 9NM with a 3 2700ft
2700ft + TCH (60ft) + apt. elev. (160ft)
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
1 in 60 rule
Q. At which altitude should you cross 2.5DME ILST?


1425 ft
Exercises
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Content G2
1 in 60 rule

Speed factor, ground factor, air factor

Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient

Rate of climb, angle of climb, climb
gradient

Descent planning

Wind and time corrections
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Speed factor is a general term indicating the distance travelled
per minute, expressed in nautical miles per minute. Sometimes
the term speednumber is used instead of speed factor.

Ground factor (GF) is the ground distance (ground miles)
travelled per minute.




Air factor (AF) is the air distance (air miles) travelled per minute.


Definitions
60
GS
GF =
60
TAS
AF =
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Another good approximation for air factor is:

Mach number x 10

Most of the times this equation can be used on bigger airplanes
where Mach is indicated on the flightdeck.



air factor ?



Air factor
6 NM/min
example
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. Calculate the air factor for the given TAS / Mach number?


Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Exercises
90 KTAS AF = ?
120 KTAS AF = ?
150 KTAS AF = ?
180 KTAS AF = ?
100 KTAS AF = ?

M .78 AF ? (A320)
M .84 AF ? (B747)
M .72 AF ? (AVRO RJ)

AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. Calculate the air factor for the given TAS / Mach number?


Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Exercises
90 KTAS AF = 1,5 NM/min
120 KTAS AF = 2 NM/min
150 KTAS AF = 2,5 NM/min
180 KTAS AF = 3 NM/min
100 KTAS AF 1,7 NM/min

M .78 AF 8 NM/min
M .84 AF 8,5 NM/min
M .72 AF 7 NM/min

AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. Calculate the ground factor for the given TAS and wind?


Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Exercises
120 KTAS, 20kts HW GF ?
105 KTAS, 15kts TW GF = ?
130 KTAS, 25 kts TW GF ?
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. Calculate the ground factor for the given TAS and wind?


Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Exercises
120 KTAS, 20kts HW GF 1,7 NM/min
105 KTAS, 15kts TW GF = 2 NM/min
130 KTAS, 25 kts TW GF 2,5 NM/min
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Navigation exercises:


Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Exercises
A B leg distance: 30 NM
110 KTAS
TW 15 kts
ETE ?
15 min
B C leg distance: 50 NM
120 KTAS
TW 25 kts
ETE ?
20 min
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Navigation exercises:


Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Exercises
C D diversion leg distance: 45 NM
145 KTAS
HW 20 kts
ETE ?
22 min
C E diversion leg distance: 70 NM
140 KTAS
HW 30 kts
ETE ?
35 min
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
IFR navigation exercises:


Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Exercises
Under radar vectors to final on base leg. Speed 120 KTAS,
HW 15 kts. How much time left before intercepting final?
3,5 min
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
IFR navigation exercises:


Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Exercises
Under radar vectors to final on base leg. Speed 100 KTAS,
TW 10 kts. How much time left before intercepting final?
2 min
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. ATC request ETA overhead point EXIBA, distance to EXIBA is
80 NM. Speed 145 KTAS, HW 20 kts.


Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Exercises
13:45
14:25
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. ATC request ETA overhead point DOBAL, distance to DOBAL
is 30 NM. Speed 110 KTAS, HW 20 kts.


Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Exercises
16:32
16:52
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. What is you air factor, ground factor and at what time will you
arrive overhead TILLE?


Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
AF 4 NM/min
GF 3 NM/min
TILLE @ 11:37Z
Exercises
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Content G2
1 in 60 rule

Speed factor, ground factor, air factor

Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient

Rate of climb, angle of climb, climb
gradient

Descent planning

Wind and time corrections
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient
Mathematics - AoD
For small angles tan() (with expressed in radians)




X
Y
X
Y
rad rad ~ ~ ] [ ] [ tan o o
o
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient
o
[ft] distance
[ft] altitude
] [ ] [ tan
A
A
~ ~ rad rad o o
| | NM distance A
| | ft altitude A
Mathematics - AoD
6000 [NM] distance
[ft] altitude
] [
A
A
~ rad o
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient
6000 M] distance[N
[ft] altitude
] [
A
A
~ rad o
Mathematics - AoD
100 M] distance[N
100 [FL] altitude
] [
A
A
~ o
6000 M] distance[N
[ft] altitude
60
] [
A
A
~
o
100 M] distance[N
[ft] altitude
] [
A
A
~ o
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient
o
M] distance[N
FL
] [
A
A
~ o
angle of descent [ ]
Mathematics - AoD
| | ft altitude A
| | NM distance A
100 M] distance[N
100 [FL] altitude
] [
A
A
~ o
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient
Mathematics - RoD
] AoD[
| | hr / NM GS
RoD [ft/min]
M] distance[N
FL
] [ AoD
A
A
~
GS[NM/hr]
RoD[FL/hr]
] [ AoD ~
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient
Mathematics - RoD
GS[NM/hr]
RoD[FL/hr]
] [ AoD ~
GS[NM/hr]
100
60
] RoD[ft/min
] [ AoD

~
60
100
GS[kts] ] [ AoD ] RoD[ft/min ~
100 GF[NM/min] ] [ AoD ] RoD[ft/min ~
Rate of descent [ ft/min]
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient
Descent gradient
descent gradient [%] ( ) 1 2 AoD ~
3 ?

4 ?

7 %
5 %
example
Rate of descent [fpm] descent gradient [%] x GS
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. Calculate angle of descent, descent gradient and rate of
descent?


Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient
Exercises
Altitude to loose
2000ft 3000ft 1200ft
in distance of
6 NM 5 NM 3 NM
with GS
120 kts 100 kts 150 kts
AoD ? ? ?
descent gradient ? ? ?
RoD ? ? ?
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. Calculate angle of descent, descent gradient and rate of
descent?


Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient
Exercises
Altitude to loose
2000ft 3000ft 1200ft
in distance of
6 NM 5 NM 3 NM
with GS
120 kts 100 kts 150 kts
AoD 3,5 6 4
descent gradient 6% 11% 7%
RoD 720 fpm 1100 fpm 1050fpm
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. You are flying enroute at 11.000ft, ATC requests you to
descent and reach waypoint TANGO at 5000ft. TANGO is at 12
NM and your groundspeed is 160 kts. What rate of descent will
you need?


Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient
Exercises
RoD 1300 fpm
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. What AoD and RoD do we need to fly to pass the step down
fix at 12.0 NM and 7.0 NM at the minimum altitude? What will be
our final RoD (from to the touchdown point)? GS is 90kts.


Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient
Exercises
6200ft
7.0 15.0 12.0
5000ft
4000ft
Final RoD 450 + 100fpm
AoD 4
RoD 600 fpm
1900ft
AoD 2
RoD 300 fpm
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. What is the AoD and RoD required to reach the stepdown
fixes at the minimum altitudes? GS is 75 kts.


Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient
Exercises
KCHD, VOR Rwy 4R
4
500 fpm
3
375 fpm
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. What is the final RoD required to the MDA? GS is 75 kts.


Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient
Exercises
KSDL, VOR A
450 + 200 fpm
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. What RoD is required to stay on the glide of a standard ILS
approach, at 90 100 120 150 kts GS?


Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient
Exercises
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. Airport elevation is 2500ft, mountain ridge at 30 NM from the
airport with a top of 8000ft. What RoC and AoC do we need to
clear the top of the mountain with 1000ft clearance at 90KIAS
(no wind)?


Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient
Exercises
2500ft
8000ft
30NM
2
300 fpm
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. What is the angle of descent and rate of descent required to
follow the published final approach?


AoD 4
RoD 800 fpm
Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient
Exercises
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. What is the descent gradient and required rate of descent of
this non-precision approach?


Descent grad. 6%
RoD 540 fpm
Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient
Exercises
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Content G2
1 in 60 rule

Speed factor, ground factor, air factor

Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient

Rate of climb, angle of climb, climb
gradient

Descent planning

Wind and time corrections
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Rate of climb, angle of climb,
climb gradient
thumbrules
climb gradient [%]
( ) 1 2 AoC ~
climb gradient [%] x GS
Same as for descent.


distance
FL
A
A
~
angle of climb [ ]
100 GF
distance
FL

A
A
~
rate of climb [fpm]
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. What RoC do we need to climb on a SID with a standard
gradient? Climb speed 105 kts.


350 fpm
Rate of climb, angle of climb,
climb gradient
Exercises
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. Due to obstacles in the departure area, a SID requires 7% up
to 3000ft. At 105 kts climb speed, what RoC do we need?


750 fpm
Rate of climb, angle of climb,
climb gradient
Exercises
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. At 3 NM from the departure end of the runway is a church
located on a small hill. The top of the church is at 700ft above
airport elevation. What is the AoC, climb gradient en RoC
required to cross the top with a 500ft clearance? During takeoff
you cross the end of the runway at 150ft at 90 kts.


Rate of climb, angle of climb,
climb gradient
Exercises
150ft
700ft
AoC: 3,5
Climb gradient: 6%
RoC: 525 fpm
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Content G2
1 in 60 rule

Speed factor, ground factor, air factor

Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient

Rate of climb, angle of climb, climb
gradient

Descent planning

Wind and time corrections
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Descent planning
500 feet/min rate of descent is the standard, unless there is a
good reason to descend at a higher rate.


Minutes to descend =


Distance to descend =


Remember not to calculate your descent until ground but til
your pattern altitude!



non-pressurized aircraft
2
1000
loose to altitude

GF 2
1000
loose to altitude

AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. How many miles to loose 3000ft at 120 kts GS?
5000ft 100 kts
4000ft 150 kts
Descent planning
12 NM
Exercises
17 NM
20 NM
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. Calculate TOD in nautical miles and minutes?
Descent planning
Exercises
present alt. airport elev. airspeed wind
8500ft KSDL - 1500ft 110 kts 10 TW
5500ft KRYN - 2500ft 100 kts 15 HW
11500ft KFLG - 7000ft 145 kts 20 HW
! Reach the airport at TPA (normally 1000ft AGL).
12 min 24 NM before KSDL
4 min 6 NM before KRYN
7 min 14 min before KFLG
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. At which distance from KFFZ will you start the descent?
Descent speed 90 kts (no wind).


Descent planning
A/FD KFFZ
pattern alt. 800ft
TOD = 20 NM before KFFZ
Exercises
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Content G2
1 in 60 rule

Speed factor, ground factor, air factor

Rate of descent, angle of descent,
descent gradient

Rate of climb, angle of climb, climb
gradient

Descent planning

Wind and time corrections
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
wind component
crosswind
h
e
a
d
w
i
n
d

t
a
i
l
w
i
n
d

AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
3
1
3
2
crosswind component
3
3
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
crosswind component
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
3
2
3
3
tail-/headwind component
3
3
3
2
HEAD TAIL
3
1
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
1
3
k
t
s

tail-/headwind component
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
wind component
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
Exercises
Q. Calculate crosswind and head/tailwind component?


wind: 340/15
300/10
015/20
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
Exercises
Q. Calculate crosswind and head/tailwind component?


wind: 080/20
230/30
360/15
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
HW / TW component divided by AF = time correction [sec] per
minute flight time

time correction per minute x leg time = time correction for the
leg


time correction
example
A
B
Q: new flight time with
20kts headwind?
11min 40 sec
This is an approximation (thumb rule), if you calculate it
exactly, you will found 12 min. as new flight time
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
drift/wind correction angle
AF
component crosswind
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. Calculate crosswind and head/tailwind component?


Speed factor, ground factor, air factor
Wind, 300/13kts
Crosswind comp. = 8 kts (2/3)
Headwind comp. = 8 kts (2/3)
Exercises
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. How many ground miles will you fly in a minute?


Speed factor, ground factor, air factor

Reported wind:
090/22kts

2 NM/min
1
6
k
t
s

Exercises
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
Exercises
Q. Calculate the heading correction, 90 KTAS?


wind: 340/15
300/10
150/20
3 L
5 L
7 R
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
Exercises
wind: 080/20
230/30
360/15
Q. Calculate the heading correction, 120 KTAS?


4 L
15 R
8 L
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
Exercises
VFR navigation
PA 28 110 KTAS
wind 120/15
diversion to alternate airport: course 060, distance 36 NM

Q. What will be your ETE and heading to your alternate airport?


Heading: 067
ETE: 21 min
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
Exercises
VFR navigation
DA 42 145 KTAS
wind 060/25
diversion to alternate airport: course 210, distance 45 NM

Q. What will be your ETE and heading to your alternate airport?


Heading: 205
ETE: 16 min
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Q. Which heading to fly and what will be your estimated leg
time?


Track: 160
Distance: 11 NM
Wind: 030/18
HDG: 154
Leg time: 5,5 min
Exercises
Wind and time corrections
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
Exercises
Q. Calculate the time correction? 100KTAS, leg time 3 min.


wind: 340/15
300/10
150/20
+ 30 sec.
+ 9 sec.
- 30 sec.
AIRLINE TRAINING CENTER, INC.
Wind and time corrections
Exercises
Q. Calculate the flight time outbound SNOWL and the heading
and time correction outbound in the procedure turn (course
167). 100 KTAS.


2,5 min.
+ 0 sec / 11 R
Stay within
10 NM from
SNOWL
Extra info: Outbound timing SNOWL 1 to 3
minutes (ICAO), we take 3 minutes (no wind)
with a speed of 100 KTAS and we stay within
10NM from SNOWL
MENU