Subsurface drainage Investigations

Subsurface drainage refers to the removal of

excess water present below the ground surface.

Agricultural lands affected by high water table
generally need subsurface drainage.

While surface drainage removes the excess
rainwater before it enters the root zone,
subsurface drainage lowers the water table and
provides a better environment in the root zone.

While subsurface drainage problems could be
natural, often these problems are manmade.
It is important to understand the causes and the necessity of the
problem of drainage before discussing the methods of their
reclamation.
Generally the issues of water logging drainage and salinity are
visualised as separate issues occurring independently, and
therefore requiring independent consideration.

However the three problems are intimately connected. In fact
water logging is the main cause which results in the problems of
drainage and salinity affecting agricultural productivity.

There are various alternative approaches to drainage suiting
different crop and soil hydrological conditions.

Table 1. Water logging
Norms of water logging
Nomenclature Depth of water
table b.g.l.
1 Water logged < 2 m
2 Potential area for water
logging
2-3 m
3 Safe > 3 m

Table 2 Waterlogged and User Areas in Different States

Sl.
No.
State (s) Waterlogged
area (lakh ha)
Usar area
(lakh ha)
1 Uttar Pradesh 8.10 12.95
2 Andhra Pradesh 3.39 2.40
3 Bihar 1.17
16
0.04

4 Gujarat 4.84 12.14
5 Haryana 6.20 5.26
6 Jammu & Kashmir 0.10 -
7 Karnataka 0.10 4.04
8 Kerala 0.61 0.61
9 Madhya Pradesh 0.57 2.42
10 Maharashtra 1.10 5.34
11 Orrisa 0.60 4.04
12 Punjab 10.90 6.88
13 Rajasthan 3.48 7.28
14 TamilNadu 0.18 0.04
15 West Bengal 18.10 8.50
16 Delhi 0.10 0.16

The basic reason for agricultural lands being
affected by water logging and salinity is
inadequacy of natural drainage system to handle
the water reaching the land either by natural or
artificial means.
When such a situation occurs artificial drainage
system has to be resorted to.
The earliest drainage method consisted of drainage
by open trenches.

Water logging and salinity was observed in Karnal in 1855.

Systematic efforts on Drainage were made and successfully
demonstrated in Gohana and Sampla at Central Soil Salinity Institute
Karnal around 1983- 1984.
Later under ICAR projects several regional centers for research on
drainage were established in different states.
CSSRI pilot projects under Indo-Dutch schemes on subsurface drainage
were established in different soil hydrological regions in different states,
which were quite successful and were picked up well in few states.
No systematic data of total subsurface drainage in the country is
available.
However under RAJAD (Rajasthan Drainage Project) systematic
subsurface drains were laid in about 13000 hectares by fully mechanized
equipments.
In Haryana state also about 3000 hectares of subsurface drains have
been laid by mechanized equipments.

India
It was also analyzed and calculated that the largest
agricultural area was without any water management
system.
About 90% of the increase in production had to come
from the existing cultivated lands and only 19% from
new land reclamation.
In the rain fed areas without water management water
harvesting and watershed management may improve
livelihood of poor farm families but much increase in
production is not expected.
Installation of irrigation and drainage systems in areas
without a system or improvement/modernization of
existing irrigation and drainage system.
There has to be a shift of contribution to total food
production 30% for the areas without a water
management system, 50% for the areas having a
irrigation system and 20% in rain fed areas with a
drainage system.

SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE
Subsurface drainage may be defined as the removal or control of
ground water and removal or control of salts using water as vehicle.
The source of water may be percolation from precipitation or
irrigation leakage from canals, drains or surface water bodies at
higher elevation.
Any drain or well designed to control or lower the ground water is
considered subsurface drainage.
They may be broadly classified in two categories as :
(a) Horizontal Drains, and (b) Vertical Drains
(a) Horizontal drains
It is accomplished by buried pipes or pipe less (mole) drains and also by
deep open ditches.
Pipe drains : They consist of a system of pipes made of baked clay
concrete or perforated plastic pipe or any other materials. The excess
water enters in lateral lines through the joints between two tiles or
perforations and flows towards main drains.

The main objectives of horizontal drains are
(i) In humid region to accomplish aeration in plant root zone to grow upland
crops like maize, soybean etc and to provide improvement in soil
moisture conditions for operation of tillage, planting and harvesting and
thus to increase length of growing season for the next Rabi crop
(ii) In irrigated -less rainfall arid regions, to remove toxic substances like
salts rising in the root zone from saline/alkali water tables by evaporation.
In humid regions generally the water quality is good and drainage is to be
provided only for good aeration in root zone.
The depths of tile drains are generally kept 2.5 ft. to 3.0 ft. In arid regions
with saline soils the root zone of the crops has to be kept free of salts
from a saline water table.
In such drainage systems, the depth of tile drains are kept 6.0 ft. to 8.0 ft.

Objectives of Horizontal
Drainage
In humid regions, the spacings are kept 30 ft. to 150 ft. apart and upto
300 ft. apart for very permeable soils.
When permeability is very low one may get spacings 30 to 40 ft.
Unless the crop is of very high value drainage becomes uneconomical
with such spacings.
In arid regions where depths are more, spacings may range from 300 ft. to
600 ft.
(b) Vertical drainage
Essentially this consists of a system of shallow tube wells spread in the
area through intensification of minor irrigation works.
Through direct extraction of ground water it lowers the water table.
The drained water may be used to augment irrigation water supply in the
area.
Use of tube wells along with canal water could also be termed as
conjunctive use.

HORIZONTAL DRAINAGE , Some Clarifications
Can shallow Surface Drains lower water table and leach a Salt affected Profile?
Surface drainage removes surface ponding and reduces the recharge on
high water tables and is thus a good supplemental practice, but it cannot
be used to lower water tables and remove salts from salt profile.
For seepage to take place according to Darcys Law there should be some
hydraulic gradient between the two points considered.
For lowering of water table and removal of salts the amendments must
permeate the soil mass .
This is possible only through line sinks created in the form of sub surface
drains.
With shallow drains only sheet flow over surface can take place providing
surface washing of salts from the surface without any effective leaching of
the profile.

Reclamation by Leaching with Gypsum shallow water table areas and reversal of
alkalinity
Leaching has been found to be quite effective in areas with deep water tables.
However carrying out reclamation at a heavy cost in areas with shallow water
tables the areas have been found to return to original state of alkalinity.
Deep open Drains Functions
Deep open drains say up 80 cm or more depth are theoretically subsurface
drains and equivalent in performance in tile drains.
Being open at the surface they can perform surface drainage also, besides
subsurface drainage, but they are difficult to maintain as well as to be crossed
by men, animal and machinery.
Earlier subsurface drainage works in other countries were carried out by such
open drains but substituted later by covered drains.
It took about a century to start from subsurface drainage through open drains
stone drains to arrive at the system of closed perforated PVC pipes.
To reduce or stop seepage is it necessary to line all the earthen canals?
With constraints on funds, it may be infeasible to line all the length of main
canals and distributaries. Highly permeable and low permeable zones
should be identified and as a first priority, only reaches with high
permeability may be lined, which may be gradually extended.
Effectiveness of Limited Combination of Surface and Vertical Drainage
Sometimes a combination of vertical drainage (small tube wells and surface
drainage (done by farmers) is planned providing all amendments and
fertilizer inputs. A monitoring of water quality in recirculating the
moderately sodic ground waters, the continued addition of chemical inputs
and its long term projection is desirable, besides the immediate benefit
accrued with such projects.

Role of Blocking of natural Drainage by Highways Railways and Canals: There
are large areas (about 15-20 percent) in the country waterlogged because of
blocking of natural drainage to overland flow due to manmade structures like
railways, highways and irrigation canals. These structures provide very
insufficient size culverts/siphons for drainage crossing to economise their own
projects. Such locations should be identified, indexed after surveying to find the
nature and extent of water logging. Depending on funds available, the culvert size
and drainage ways should be appropriately enlarged in phases.
Role of Toe/Interceptor Drains: Interceptor drains are a good device to reduce
bank seepage from the canals specially in the canal fill zone. It needs however to
be appreciated that Interceptor drains can only partly reduce seepage from the
canal banks. They cannot reduce seepage from the bed of the canals. The
toe-drains of canals should be properly constructed and maintained for effective
drainage of seepage water. Closed drains though costly can be maintained better
than open drains.

Borrow pits along Roads Canals and Railways
Borrow pits along the road-side railways and canals should be interconnected
till they are outletted in the cross drainage works.
Integrated System of Drainage from Field to Outlet
Total effective drainage from a command area needs the essential components
of field drainage, intermediate link drainage and outlet drainage.
Outlet drains are important but such a system without positive field drainage
construction may amount only to wastage of money. In effect such a system
would be parallel to construction of main canals and distributaries by one
department and requiring establishment of another department of CADA for
utilization of irrigation potential. It is desirable that all the three components of
drainage are coordinated by the same authority for better effectiveness and
accountability.

VERTICAL DRAINAGE
Vertical drainage and conjunctive use is another good way of lowering water
tables and providing subsurface drainage. With good quality ground water it is
an excellent practice. On one hand it lowers the water table and on the other
hand through the same process it also provides irrigation for increasing
production of agricultural crops. However, it is important understand different
issues involved with it. One of the issues is whether one can effectively
implement conjunctive use in a command area with the presently prevailing
democratic and socio-economic set up.
Conjunctive use of surface and ground water
It is term used for application of tube wells along with canals for irrigation of
agricultural crops. Essentially this consists of a system of shallow tube wells
spread in the area through intensification of minor irrigation works. Through
direct extraction of ground water it lowers the water table. The drained water
may be used to augment irrigation water supply in the area. Use of tube wells
along with canal water could also be termed as conjunctive use.

Conjunctive use through vertical drainage requires good quality ground water.
Through vertical drainage lowering of general ground water
level has to be done through large scale pumping from
shallow tube wells. Only shallow tube wells are useful for
lowering water table. Deep tube wells in confined aquifers
would not be effective to lower the water table.
According to Smedema and Zimmer (1994) in Scarp
programme of Pakistan about 15000 large capacity tube wells
were installed to reduce rising water tables and alleviate
irrigation water shortage. The pumped water was used to
supplement canal supplies at the head of the irrigation water
courses. With success of VD and CU programmes a large
number of farmers estimated as 300000 farmers started
constructing their own private tube wells. This has been more
successful in fresh water zone than in high salinity ground
waters.
With private tube wells and non existence of any ground water
laws it is difficult to implement it in an organised way. Still
encouragement of shallow tube well pumping through minor
irrigation in good quality ground water areas along with
reduction of canal running duration should be helpful in
improving drainage conditions.

Well point system has Different Objective than Conjunctive Use
Some times, the objective of vertical drainage is assigned as steady state
lowering of water tables in the root zone for growing crops due to
overlapping of draw down caused by pumping of closely spaced wells.
In other words this is similar to the well known well point system.
Such a system is used for building foundations or other structures in
high water table areas where rapid lowering of water tables is required for
short periods.
Such a system is costly and would also involve high recurring energy
costs and does not seem to be practicable for growing agricultural crops.
It does not seem to be feasible for continued lowering of water tables in
root zone for long periods necessary for growing crops.

Suitable Conditions For Conjunctive use
de Ridder (1983), Attia and Twinhoff (1989) recommend technical feasibility of
tube well drainage only based on geometry of aquifer hydraulic parameters,
thickness and hydraulic resistance of clay cap, ground water quality and rate
of recharge.
According to them well drainage enables the ground water to be lowered to a
much greater depth than gravity drainage.
Where deeper layers of substrata are more pervious than layers near the
surface pumping from these layers may reduce the artesian pressure that is
often present creating a vertical downward flow through the upper layers.
According to CWC and USAID the feasibility of tube well drainage is
recommended for large areas of flat lands with high water tables, thick
aquifers with good hydraulic conductivity, areas having high infiltration rates,
ground water under artesian pressure, ground water with good quality, where
pipe drainage is feasible but costly because of inadequate outlets, where
ground water lowering is desired beyond 2 to 5 m.
BIO-DRAINAGE
Utility of Bio drainage
Bio-drainage is proposed as a good method of subsurface drainage.
However, it is important to identify appropriate situations where this method
can be effectively and usefully utilized.
It is unfair to assign it an objective which it can not take care and then
misinterpret the approach.
It is a good method to reduce bank seepage in canals and have been used
for this purpose in many canal commands
It is not only an economic method of drainage, it also improves the ecology
of the area and is environment friendly.
It provides costly wood useful for multifarious purposes and also various
range of bio-mass.
It can transpire water from ground water table in good amounts. A large
range of crops tolerant to salinity can be grown in salt affected lands.
It is a good method for economical exploitation of a waste land.

Bio drainage useful for long term water table lowering but not for growing
Agricultural Crops
Agricultural drainage requires frequent and rapid lowering 1 to 2 m of water
table in 2 to 3 days after every recharge due to irrigation/rainfall during the crop
growth period.
trees can lower water table by 1 m in 1 to 2 years what will happen to crops
during this period. This, lowering also is possible only if there is no recharge in
the tree cropped area. If there is frequent recharge due to irrigation/rainfall it
does not appear feasible that the water table can be lowered by tree crops.

Bio drainage utility in old or new commands
The trees have to be planted till they become affective in providing
evapotranspiration. This is possible only in new commands not yet
water-logged. In water-logged and salt affected commands it is not practical to
plant and establish trees. if they can be planted and grown over a time seepage
process from the canal would require to wait for their becoming old enough to
provide evapotranspiration.
Bio drainage can remove only water and not the salts from a
saline soil?
There are no evidence of systematically controlled experiments to demonstrate
removal of salts from a saline high water table soil profile. Growing salt tolerant
crops does not imply removal of salts from soil profile and enabling it for growth
of agricultural crops. The scope of bio-drainage seemed to be more favourable
in arid zone where drainage surpluses are small in relation to evapotranspiration
rates (1 to 2 mm/day vs 10 mm/day).
POLICY ISSUES FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE
Periodic monitoring and reporting of Water tables
It is necessary to determine pre monsoon and post monsoon water tables
every three years in order to determine the increase in the extent of water
logging with progress of time for the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon
season.
Only a periodic comparison of successive pre-monsoon water levels or
successive post monsoon water levels for every three years can provide this
information.
Long term canal rostering and conjunctive use in waterlogged area
In high water table areas with good water quality water, conjunctive use
through intensification of subsidies on minor irrigation works and lesser
release of water in main canals and distributaries should be properly planned
and encouraged.

In the canal commands, irrigation should be reduced by long duration
rostering of canal networks considering ground water levels in the areas.
If the water level is less than 5 m b.g.l., canal irrigation should be
discouraged.
For paddy cultivation, canal irrigation should be given preference but
over-irrigation should be discouraged.
Where canal irrigation is in vogue it is strongly recommended to go for a
conjunctive use of surface and groundwater and to use adequate
quantity of groundwater from tube well irrigation so that the
pre-monsoon groundwater level should be around 10 m below land
surface.
Further rostering of the canals for long periods and use of groundwater
for irrigation will lower the water table and keep it in control and, thereby,
increase the agricultural production.
Necessity of a separate body to look after Drainage provision and
maintenance
There should be an independent investigation and planning organization
in Irrigation department for collection of drainage data, drainage surveys,
storage and processing of data base and preparing and dovetailing of
drainage project in an integrated manner. This needs being implemented in
right spirit.
Integrated approach of drainage starting from drainage link drains main
drains and natural waterway
For appropriate agricultural drainage, it is necessary that field drains link
drains and main drains should be constructed and made to function in an
integrated manner.
Most of field drains constructed by rural development projects have been
encroached by farmers by putting bunds across drain for irrigation or
putting it to cultivation.
It is necessary to establish responsibility of repairs and maintenance on
some institution which presently does not exist.

In highly waterlogged areas where drainage is difficult and costly Water
Productivity concepts may be used as developed in different Research
complexes and Water Technology Centers.
Simultaneous Planning and sanction of Irrigation and Drainage but
implementation of Irrigation woks carried only for Irrigation.
The drainage projects components are simultaneously provided along
with the irrigation project.
But generally irrigation component of the projects are completed
expeditiously, whereas, drainage component keeps lagging.
Such disbalance in project construction should be properly monitored
and discouraged.

Drainage Maintenance Norms
The norms of maintenance of drains recommended by expert
committee, Govt. of India (1981) should be appropriately followed.
Only 35 percent of cost of maintenance of drains being met by state
government is insufficient and should be increased for effective results.
The various provisions of North India Canal and Drainage Act (1873) and
its modification requiring Gaon Sabha to construct repair and maintain
the water courses below the outlet should be suitably amended to
appropriately define the responsibility of Gaon Sabha and various
departments.
Similar modifications needs be done in respect of Panchayat Raj Act
(1947).

BENEFITS OF SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE
1. Aeration of root zone for maximum development
of the plant roots.
2. Opportunity for desirable soil micro organisms to
develop through aeration and higher soil
temperatures.
3. Availability of the soil for early cultivation and thus
increased crop growth period.
4. Improvement of soil moisture conditions for
operation of farm machinery.
5. Removal of undesirable salts from the root zone.
6. Greater storage of rainwater in the root zone
because of a low initial water table before the
rains.
INVESTIGATION FOR SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE
1. Topographic map of the area.
2. Data on soil salinity and alkalinity, drainable porosity
etc.
3. Position and fluctuations of water table levels relative
to the ground surface and artesian pressures.
4. Ground water quality.
5. Hydraulic conductivity measurements.
6. Crops proposed to be grown and their drainage
requirements.
7. Irrigation practices and requirements.
The topographic map gives the details of
land slope, possible outlets, existing
drainage pattern, undulating land areas
etc., and serves as the base map for
preparing the water table contour maps.

Information on soil salinity and alkalinity
is needed if surface drainage systems
are to be planned along with reclamation
of such soils.
Hooghoudts steady state equation
DRAINABLE POROSITY
Drainage porosity is the volume of water
released from a known volume of
saturated soil under the force of gravity
and inherent soil water tensions. It is
expressed as a percentage of the total
volume of saturated soil. It is also frequently
referred to as the specific yield.
DRAINAGE COEFFICIENT or
DRAINAGE DESIGN RATE
Drainage coefficient or drainage
design rate with reference to subsurface
drainage system is the design value at
which water is to be removed per unit of
time. It is also sometimes referred to as
drainage modulus.
DRAINAGE EFFICIENCY
Drainage efficiency is the ratio of the
volume of water discharged by the drains
during a certain period to the precipitation
generated in that period.

STEADY FLOW
Steady is one in which the volume of water
passing a given point per unit of time remains
constant.
The movement of water into subsurface drains is
influenced by the following factors:
1. The hydraulic conductivity of the soil horizons;
2. The configuration and location of the free water
surface, and the presence and magnitude of
artesian pressure or of the back pressure in the
drains;
3. Depth of drain below ground surface and location of
drain with respect to various soil horizons;
4. The horizontal distance between individual drains;
5. The diameter of drain;
6. The tile joint spacing/ diameter and spacing of holes,
in case of PVC pipes and
7. The depth to impervious layer below the ground
surface.
Let,
S = Spacing of drains, m
d= depth of impermeable layer below the
drain axis, m
H = height of water table at mid point between
the drains above drain axis, m
R = Constant rate of recharge due to rain/
irrigation, mm/hour
K = Hydraulic conductivity of the soil,
mm/hour
i = Hydraulic gradient = dh/dx
Now assume a vertical section A-A at a
distance x from the drain axis and let h be
the height of water table/ phreatic line
above drain axis,
Using Darcys law, the flow across section
A-A towards the drain per unit length can
be expressed as,
q
x
=Kh (dh/dx) (1)

In which q
x
is the discharge per unit length
of drain at a section x distance away from
the drain,
The recharge per unit length of drain will be given by,
q
x
= (S/2 - x) . R (2)

Equating equation (1) and (2), we get,

|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|

dx
dh
h K R x
S
. .
2
(3)


dx x
S
K
R
dh h
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
. .
.(4)
Re-writing (3),
} }
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
H d
d
s
dx x
S
K
R
dh h
2 /
0
2
.
2 /
0
2 2
2 2
.
2
s H d
d
x x S
K
R h
(

=
(

+
On integrating (4) between limits, we get,
( )
(

=
(

+
8 4 2
2 2 2
2
S S
K
R d H d
| |
5 . 0
2
4
(

+ = H d
R
KH
S
.(5)
Re-writing (5) for S, we get,
In case if the drain is assumed to be placed
at the junction of two layered soil with K
1
and
K
2
as hydraulic conductivity for the top and
bottom layer than,
5 . 0
2
1 2
4 8
(

+
=
R
h K Hd K
S

In case of pipe drains the term d is to be
replaced by, d(e), called equivalent depth to
moderate the effect of raising water table due
to the presence of impermeable layer at
shallow depths.
Random drainage - herringbone -
grid iron types
Pipe materials - tile, plastics cement -
Envelope materials. Load factors -
blind inlet - filters - mole drains,
drainage wells
Mole drains :
These are cylindrical channels artificially produced in the
subsoil by a mole plough.
In principle and hydraulics they are similar to pipe drain except
that they are not lined with tiles or plastic pipes.
Moling is considered as a temporary method of drainage as
moles deteriorate and have to be reconstructed for
effectiveness.

Deep open ditches :
If closely spaced, they also work similar to pipe drains or mole
drains for lowering water table and removing excess water.
However, they are difficult to maintain and provide lot of
inconvenience for crossing of men, animals and farm
equipments.

Pipe materials satisfy the following conditions:
1. The pipe materials should withstand various
pressure and stresses like tensile, Compression
and hoop under water hammer condition.
2. It should be resistant to corrosion and abrasion
caused by the water.
3. It should be durable having sufficient strength to
bear the external loads coming over it.
4. It should be structurally safe.
5. It should have minimum possible weight.
6. It should be economical and uniform in size and
shape.
7. It should be capable of easy hoisting and handling
at site.
CONSTRUCTIONS
1. Pipe inlet laid below the ground
surface.
2. Tile line section placed over the
inlet
3. Coarse materials are filled on the
inlets.
4. Size of the materials is become
less towards the surface
5. Finally back filling with sand.
LOAD FACTOR
The load factor is the ratio of the
strength of a rigid conduit under given
bedding conditions to its strength as
determined by three edge bearing test.
Generally it ranges from 1.2 to 1.5 for
drainage pipe laying conditions.
DRAINAGE WELL
The use of wells for the purpose of
draining land is called drainage well.
The soil permeability plays an important
role in determining the feasibility of well
drainage.