The City

The City: Suggestions for the Investigation of Human Behavior in the City Environment Author(s): Robert E.
Park Reviewed work(s): Source: American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 20, No. 5 (Mar., 1915), pp. 577-612 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2763406 . Accessed: 06/06/2012 00:12
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THE AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY
VOLUME XX
MARCH
I9I5
NUMBER 5
THE CITY: SUGGESTIONS FOR THE INVESTIGATION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT
ROBERT E. PARK of University Chicago
for It will be convenient the point of view proposedin this of and paper to regardthe city,not as a merecongeries persons socialarrangements, as an institution. but to An institution, consistsof a "concept according Sumner, defines "an as and a structure."By concept, whichhe further he supidea,notion, doctrine, interest," meansorganized attitudes sentiments."The structure," adds, he ported their by appropriate or of "is a framework, apparatus, perhaps or onlya number funcin tionaries to co-operate prescribed set waysat a certain juncture. the and furnishes instrumentalities The structure holdstheconcept of intotheworld factsand actionin a way to serve forbringing it theinterests menin society."' of is of human The pointis thatan institution a section corporate and nature which plus themachinery theinstrumentalities through nature thathuman operates. of we of Withthisconception an institution can think thecity, thatis to say, the place and the people,withall the machinery, and administrative devicesthat go withit, sentiments, customs,
' Sumner,Folkways: Study the A of Sociological Importance Usages, of Manners, Customs, Mores, Morals, 54. and p. 577
578
THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY
the manand thetools and railways, individual publicopinion street morethana mere entity. We collective thathe uses,as something mechanismmay thinkof it as a mechanism-apsychophysical find and political interests corporate whichprivate in and through regardas the city-its expression.Much of what we ordinarily streetrailways, and so formalorganization, buildings, charters, it forth-is,or seemsto be, mereartifact. However, is onlywhen use connect themthrough and wont, and in so faras thesethings, selves,like a tool in the hand of a man, with the vital forces the that and in resident individuals in thecommunity theyassume institutional form. As the wholethe cityis a growth. It is the of of generations men. product the laborsofsuccessive undesigned
I. THE CITY PLAN AND LOCAL ORGANIZATION
the American one The city,particularly modern city,strikes of of a processes nature at first blushas so little product theartless to its character. that and growth itis difficult recognize institutional for is cities, example, a checkerplan ofmostAmerican The ground is form board. The unitof distance theblock. This geometrical which suggeststhat the city is a purelyartificial construction, again,like a be conceivably takenapart and put together might houseofblocks. that the cityis rootedin the habitsand The factis, however, is customsof the people who inhabitit. The consequence that moralas wellas a physical and organization, the citypossessesa in interact characteristic ways to mold and these two mutually of one impresses modify another. It is thestructure thecitywhich but has and complexity, thisstructure its us by itsvisiblevastness in humannature, which is an expression. of it basis,nevertheless, whichhas arisenin On the otherhand, this vast organization once itself impresses to response theneedsofitsinhabitants, formed, in them,in turn, fact,and forms upon themas a crudeexternal whichit incorporates. and interests accordance withthe design The cityplan.-It is becausethe cityhas whathas herebeen is thatthere a limitto the character as described its institutional it which is possibleto makein its physical modifications arbitrary and structure its moralorder.
HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT
579
The city plan, for example,establishes metes and bounds, in fixes a general way thelocation and character thecity'sconof structions, imposesan orderly and within the city arrangement, area, upon the buildings which erected privateinitiative are by as well as by public authority.Withinthe limitations prescribed, however, inevitable the processes humannature of proceed give to theseregions these a and which is lesseasyto it buildings character control. Underour system individual of for ownership, instance, it is not possibleto determine advancetheextent concentrain of tion of population any givenarea. The city cannotfixland in for values,and we leave to privateenterprise, themostpart,the task of determining city'slimitsand the locationof its resithe dentialand industrial districts. Personaltastesand convenience, vocational and economic tendto segregate infallibly and interests, thus to classify populations greatcities. In thisway the the of whichis neither nor concity acquiresan organization designed trolled. Physical geography, natural advantages,and the means of determine advance the generaloutlines the transportation in of urban plan. As the city increasesin population,the subtler of influences sympathy, rivalry, and economic necessity tend to control distribution population. Business the of and manufacturing seek advantageous locations and drawaroundthema certain of portion the population. Therespring fashionable up residence quarters from the which poorer classesare excluded becauseof the increased value of theland. Then there growup slumswhich are inhabited greatnumbers the poorerclasseswho are unable by of to defend themselves from association withthederelict vicious. and In thecourse timeevery of section quarter thecitytakeson and of of and something the character qualitiesofits inhabitants.Each separatepart of the city is inevitably stainedwiththe peculiar sentiments itspopulation. The effect thisis to convert of of what was at first meregeographical a into a neighborhood, expression thatis to say,a locality with sentiments, traditions, a history and of its own. Within thisneighborhood continuity thehistorical the of processes somehow is maintained. The past imposesitself upon the present and the lifeof everylocality moveson witha certain
580
momentumof its own, more or less independentof the largercircle of lifeand interestsabout it. environment of the of The organization thecity, character theurban by which imposes, finally it is determined thesizeof andofthediscipline within cityarea. the and thepopulation, concentration distribution its of to to the Forthisreason is important study populations cities, comit in populations.Someof of paretheidiosyncrasiesthedevelopment city we are: therefore, sources thefirst aboutthe city, things wantto know distribution popuof and growth; of population; immigration natural i.e., by lationwithin city as affected (a) economic, land,values, the of growths the interests, vocation, race, etc.; comparative (b) sentimental by different portions thecityarea,as affected birthof population within anddeath-rates, marriage divorce, and etc. and neighborlycontact are the The neighborhood.-Proximity basis for the simplest and most elementaryform of association with which we have to do in the organizationof city life. Local interests and associations breed local sentiment,and, under a system which makes residence the basis for participationin the becomesthebasis ofpoliticalcontrol. government, neighborhood the In the social and political organizationof the city it is the smallest local unit. "It is surely ofthemostremarkable all socialfacts one of that, coming that from untold be instinctive down should this understanding the ages,there his manwhoestablishes home beside to uponyour yours begins havea claim is senseofcomradeship . The neighborhooda socialunitwhich, its .... by of its clear definition outline, innerorganic its completeness, hair-trigger as considered functioning a socialmind..... like reactions, be fairly may of autocratic maybe in thelarger he The localboss,however sphere the city the must the he be with power getsfrom neighborhood, always in andofthe careful to try deceive localpeople faras not to the so people; andhe is very are It about local interests concerned. is hardto foola neighborhood their itsownaffairs.", The neighborhood exists without formal organization. The local improvementsociety is the structureerected on the basis of the spontaneous neighborhoodorganization and exists for the purpose of givingexpressionto the local sentiment. of Under the complexinfluences the citylifewhat may be called the normal neighborhoodsentimenthas undergonemany curious
I Robert A. Woods,"The Neighborhood Social Reconstruction," in Papersand AnnualMeeting the Proceedingsthe of Eighth of American Sociological Society, 1913.
58I
and and interesting of changes, produced manyunusualtypes local communities.More than that,thereare nascentneighborhoods in of andneighborhoodsprocess dissolution. Consider, example, for FifthAvenue,New York,which neverhad an improveprobably in mentassociation, compare and withit I35th Street the Bronx, the is moreconcentrated in (where negro population probably than is anyother single spotin theworld) which rapidly a becoming very intimate and highly organized community. to It is important knowwhatare theforces which tendto break up thetensions, and interests, sentiments which giveneighborhoods theirindividualcharacter. In generalthesemay be said to be and everything that tends to renderthe population anything and concentrate attentions unstable, dinvde to upon widelyseparatedobjectsof interest.
live and Howmany people inhotels, apartments, tenements? own Howmany peopleowntheir homes? of of What consists nomads, proportionthepopulation hobos, gypsies ?
What partof the populationis floating? Ofwhatelements, races,classes,etc.,is thispopulation i.e., ? composed
On the otherhand, certainurbanneighborhoods suffer from isolation. Efforts have been made at different timesto reconand the struct quicken lifeof cityneighborhoods to bring in and it of interests thecommunity.Suchis in part touchwiththelarger the purposeof the social settlements.These organizations and to are others which attempting reconstruct lifehave developed city for certainmethods and a technique stimulating controlling and local communities. We should study,in connection with the of thesemethods and thistechnique, investigation theseagencies, sinceit is just the methodby whichobjectsare practically controlledthat reveals theiressentialnature,that is to say, their 1 character predictable (Gesetzmdssigkeit).
wir daher Wort das als in I "Wenn Terminus derWissenlogischen [Naturl einen wir so schaftslehre dass gebrauchen wollen, werden sagen diirfen, Naturdie Wirklichkeitist mitRiicksicht ihren auf gesetzmlissigen Zusammenhang. Diese Bedeutung wir finden z. B. in demWorte wir Naturgesetz.Dann aberkonnen die Naturder Dinge auch das nennen was in die Begriffe eingeht, oderam kuirzesten dahin uns mit die ausdriicken: Naturist die Wirklichkeit Rucksicht das Ailgemeine. auf So ersteinelogische gewinnt danndas Wort Bedeutung."-H.Rickert, Grenzen Die der p. 2I2. naturwissenschaftlicken Begriffsbildutng,
582
In many of the Europeancities,and to some extentin this has of of reconstructioncitylife goneto thelength building country, tenements unhealthful run-down and or garden suburbs, replacing ownedand controlled themunicipality. by withmodelbuildings citiestheattempt beenmadeto renovate has evil In American of and by neighborhoods the construction playgrounds the introof of including municipal sports variouskinds, duction supervised dance halis. These and otherdeviceswhich dancesin municipal to are intended primarily elevatethemoraltoneofthesegregated in of withthe populations greatcitiesshouldbe studied connection in of the neighborhood general. They should be investigation for not ownsake but forwhatthey in studied, short, merely their and humannaturegenerally. can revealto us of humanbehavior areas.-In the city environment Coloniesand segregated the tendsto lose muchof the significance whichit posneighborhood and moreprimitive forms society. The easy of sessedin simpler and of transportation, whichenables means of communication theirattention and to live at the same to individuals distribute tendsto destroy permanency the timein severaldifferent worlds, Furtherthan that, where and intimacyof the neighborhood. of individuals the same race or of the same vocationlive together sentiment to tends fuse insegregated together groups, neighborhood and racialantagonisms class interests. with distances reinforce each In thisway physicaland sentimental of of other,and the influences local distribution the population of withthe influences class and race in the evolution participate ofthesocialorganization.Everygreatcityhas its racialcolonies, of like the Chinatowns San Franciscoand New York, the Little types. In Sicilyof Chicago,and variousotherless pronounced vice additionto these,mostcitieshave theirsegregated districts, in existed Chicago, and their untilrecently rendezlikethatwhich of vous forcriminals varioussorts. Everylargecityhas its occuand its residence in like the Stockyards Chicago, pationalsuburbs has eachofwhich thesizeand the in like suburbs Brookline Boston, or of character a complete village, city,exceptthat separatetown, is the its population a selectedone. Undoubtedly mostremarkable of these citieswithincities,of whichthe most interesting
583
characteristicis that they are composed of persons of the same races but of the same social class, is race, or of persons of different East London, with a population of 2,000,000 laborers. "The people theoriginal London of East havenow overflowed crossed and over and themselves themarshes meadows theLea, andspread beyond. This newtowns which rural has wereformerly villages,West population created a of Ham,with population nearly 300,000;East Ham,with go,ooo;Stratford, withits "daughters," overgrown. 15o,ooo;and other"hamlets"similarly we of Including these populations havean aggregate nearly millions new two of is or than of people. Thepopulation greater that Berlin Vienna, St. Petersor or burg, Philadelphia. full and "It is a city ofchurches placesofworship, there nocatheare yet or of drals,either Anglican Roman; it has a sufficient supply elementary but or and for schools, ithasnopublic high school, ithasnocolleges thehigher and the education no university; peopleall readnewspapers, there no is yet and of East London . In thestreets paperexcept thesmaller localkind... seen any private there no fashionable is are there never carriages; quarter .. . .one meetsno ladies in the principal thoroughfares. People,shops, are withthe unmistakable houses, conveyances-all seal together stamped class. oftheworking of "Perhapsthestrangest thing all is this: in a cityof twomillions of of are that there nohotels! Thatmeans, course, there novisitors."' are people In the older cities of Europe, where the processesof segregation distinctions have gone farther, are likelyto be more neighborhood markedthan theyare in America. East London is a cityof a single class, but withinthe limitsof that city the population is segregated again and again by racial and vocational interests. Neighborhood sentiment,deeply rooted in local tradition and in local custom, exercises a decisive selective influenceupon city population and in shows itselfultimately a markedway in the characteristics the of inhabitants. What we want to know of these neighborhoods,racial communities,and segregatedcity areas, existingwithinor on the outer edge of great cities, is what we want to know of all other social groups. Whataretheelements which of are ? they composed To whatextent they product a selective are of the ? process Howdo people in andoutofthegroup thus formed? get Whataretherelative and of permanence stability their populations?
I
Walter Besant, East London,pp. 7-9.
584
What about the age, sex, and social condition thepeople? of What about the children How many of themare born,and how ? manyof themremain? What is the history the neighborhood? What is therein the subof or experiences-of consciousness-in the forgotten dimly remembered and thisneighborhood whichdetermines sentiments attitudes? its What is therein clear consciousness, what are its avowed sentii.e., ments, doctrines, ? etc. What does it regardas matter fact? What is news? What is the of generalrun of attention? What models does it imitateand are these or within without group? the What is thesocial ritual, i.e., whatthings mustone do in theneighborhood in orderto escape beingregarded withsuspicionor looked upon as peculiar? Who are the leaders? What interests the neighborhood they do of in and by incorporate themselves whatis thetechnique whichtheyexercise ? control
II. INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION AND THE MORAL ORDER
a a in The ancientcitywas primarily fortress, place of refuge on is timeofwar. The modern a city, thecontrary, primarily conand of to place venience commerce owes its existence the market and the around which it sprang up. Industrialcompetition done mostto developthe of division labor,whichhave probably are of latentpowersof mankind, possible onlyupon condition the and for of devices thefacilitation existence markets, money other of of tradeand comnmerce. that"city air makesmenfree" An old German adage declares a to (StadtLuftmacht frei). This is doubtless reference the days when the freecities of Germany enjoyedthe patronageof the serf and man,ifhe succeeded emperor, lawsmadethefugitive a free could fora year and a day in breathing air. Law, of itself, city in free. An open market have made thecraftsman not,however, incisell of he which might theproducts his laborwas a necessary and it was the applicationof the money dent of his freedom, the of to economy the relations masterand man that completed of emancipation theserf. classesand vocational Vocational types.-The old adage which of man still the describes cityas thenaturalenvironment the free
585
holdsso faras theindividual in manfinds thechances, diversity the of interests tasks,and in thevast unconscious and of co-operation to citylife,the opportunity choosehis own vocationand develop his peculiarindividual talents. The cityoffers market the a for special talentsof individual men. Personalcompetition tendsto select foreach special task the individual who is best suited to perform it.
"The difference natural of in talents different is, in reality, men much lessthanweareaware andthevery of; different genius which appears disto tinguish ofdifferent men professions, grown to maturity,notupon when up is many occasions much cause, theeffect thedivision labour. The so the as of of difference between most the dissimilar between philosopher a a characters, and common for street porter, example, seems arise so much to not from nature, as from habit, custom, education.When and they cameintotheworld, for and thefirst oreight six years their of existence, were they perhaps much very alike, and neither theirparents nor playfellows could perceive any remarkable difference. Aboutthat age, or soon after, theycome to be employed in different occupations.The differencetalents of comes then be taken to notice till of,and widens degrees, at lastthevanity thephilosopherwilling by of is to acknowledge scarceany resemblance. But without disposition the to and manmust truck, barter, exchange, haveprocured himself every to every and necessary conveniency lifewhich wanted. All must of he havehad the same duties perform, thesamework do,andthere to and to could havebeenno suchdifference ofemploymentcouldalonegiveoccasion anygreat as to differenceoftalent..... "As it is thepower exchanging givesoccasion thedivision of that to of so of must be labour, theextent thisdivision always limited theextent of by thatpower, in other of ... or, words, theextent themarket . Thereare by even of the lowestkind, somesortsof industry, whichcan be carried on nowhere in a great but town."'Success, under conditions of personal competition, depends upon concentrationupon some single task, and this concentration exceptionalskill. Exceptional skill,while based on natural talent, requires special preparation, and it has called into existence the
the stimulates demandforrational technical and methods, devices,
tradeand professional and finally bureausforvocational schools, or guidance. All of these, eitherdirectly indirectly, serve at once to selectand emphasize individual differences.
I AdamSmith, TheWealth Nations, 28-29. of pp.
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trade and industry prepares Every device which facilitates to divisionof labor and so tendsfurther the way fora further their menfind vocations. the specialize tasksin which of is the The outcome this process to breakdownormodify older of organization society,whichwas based on familyties, local and for on caste,and status, to substitute it an associations, culture, on vocational interests. based organization In the city,everyvocation,even that of a beggar,tendsto and the discipline which of assume the character a profession, withtheassociations in that imposes, together success anyvocation thistendency. emphasizes it enforces, and the division laboris to proof of The effect thevocations not but types, instance, socialgroups, vocational duce,in thefirst and the lumber-jack.The organizations, the actor,the plumber, menofthesametradeorprowhich likethetradeand laborunions, interests. In thisrespect form based on common are they fession like the neighborhood, of forms association whichare from differ and ties association, the common of based on contiguity, personal trades and professions seem disposed humanity. The different in to groupthemselves classes,thatis to say,theartisan, business, classes. But in the modem democratic state and professional no organization.Socialtheclasseshave as yet attained effective to basedon "class on ism,founded an effort createan organization in succeeded creating more thana political has consciousness," never party. of of maytherefore The effects thedivision laboras a discipline in it be beststudied thevocational types has produced.
it the to Among typeswhich wouldbe interesting studyare: the the the the watchman, the shopgirl, policeman, peddler, cabman, night the the the theclairvoyant, vaudeville performer, quackdoctor, bartender, the the thewardboss,thestrike-breaker, laboragitator, school teacher, the the all are thereporter, stockbroker, pawnbroker; ofthese characterof with special of its experience, istic life;each, products theconditions city for determines eachvocational and and group for insight, pointofview, its as thecity a whole individuality. of in extent thegrade intelligence is To what representedthedifferent and trades professions ability? dependent natural upon is of determined the character the by To whatextent intelligence ? under which is practiced it and occupation theconditions
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To what extentis success in the occupationsdependent upon sound judgmentand common-sense;to what extentupon technicalability? successin the differdetermine Does nativeabilityor special training ent vocations? What prestigeand what prejudicesattach to different trades and professions why? and Is the choice of the occupation determined temperamental, by by or considerations? economic, by sentimental do In whatoccupationsdo men,in whatoccupations women, succeed and why? better, How far is occupation,ratherthan association,responsible the for mental attitude and moral predilections? Do men in the same proor different nationalities and different fession trade,but representing culand identicalopinions? tural groups,hold characteristic To what extent is the social or political creed, that is, socialism, ? anarchism, syndicalism, determined occupation bytemperament etc., by ? To whatextent have social doctrine socialidealism and superseded and faithin the different takentheplace of religious and why? occupations, Do social classes tend to assume the characterof culturalgroups? That is to say, do the classes tend to acquire the exclusiveness indeand of pendence a caste or nationality;or is each class alwaysdependent upon class ? of the existence a corresponding followthe vocationsof theirparentsand To what extentdo children why? To what extentdo individualsmove fromone class to another,and of the how does thisfactmodify character class relationships ?
News and themobility thesocial group.-The divisionof labor, of in making individual success dependent upon concentrationupon of a special task, has had the effect increasingthe interdependence of the different vocations. A social organizationis thus created in which the individual becomes increasinglydependent upon the communityof which he is an indivisiblepart. The effect, under conditionsof personal competition,of this increasinginterdependence of the parts is to create in the industrialorganizationas a but a solidaritybased, not whole a certainsort of social solidarity, on sentimentand habit, but on communityof interests. the In thesense which terms here in are is used,sentimentthemore conterm. We maycherish sentiment a interest moreabstract, the a crete, for whatsoever. maybe a sentiment aversion, a or It of person, place, anyobject or of ora sentiment possession.But topossess to be possessed a sentiment by means or thatwe are incapable acting of for, in regard anything to, toward
588
rational way. It meansthattheobjectofoursentiment it in a thoroughly disposition. or in corresponds somespecialwayto someinherited acquired which instinctive. is for of is Sucha dispositiontheaffectiona mother herchild, is which acquired. cradle, empty the havefor child's she the Oreven feeling may are thatthere motives indicates attitude of The existence a sentimental conscious; is by who the of action which individual ismoved them notwholly for has he overwhich has onlya partialcontrol.Everysentiment a motives of or of in either theexperience theindividual, in theexperience the history, of history. may sentiment notbeaware the who but person actsonthat race, the the objectsthantoward ends specific less are Interests directed toward embodies.Interests or at object onetime another this particular which orthat of and of the therefore, existence means a consciousnessthedistinct-ion imply, and ends. means between rationalized valueshavebecome deviceby which is Money thecardinal It by have and sentiments beenreplaced interests. is just becausewe feel suchas we do our toward money, attitude and no personal no sentimental a becomes valuablemeansof our for toward, example, home,thatmoney in of a amount money in exchange.We willbe interested acquiring certain that may but a purpose, provided purpose be achieved to order achieve certain the It to way inanyother wearelikely be justas wellsatisfied. is only miser to and aboutmoney, in thatcasehe is likely prefer sentimental whobecomes of to irrespectiveitsvalue. In thiscase of say onesort money, gold, another than rather byreason. sentiment by thevalueofgoldis determined personal An organization which is composed of competing individuals and of competinggroups of individuals is in a state of unstable equilibrium, and this equilibrium can be maintained only by a process of continuous readjustment. This aspect of social life and this type of social organization are best representedin the world of business which is the special object of investigationof political economy. The extensionof industrialorganization,which is based on the impersonalrelationsdefinedby money, has gone forwardhand in hand with an increasingmobilityof the population. The laboring a to man and the artisan,fitted perform specifictask, are compelled under the conditionscreated by city life to move fromone region to another in search of the particular kind of employmentwhich which moves they are fittedto perform. The tide of immigration America is to some extent a back and forthbetween Europe and measure of this same mobility.'
I
London, I885, pp. 7-8. Walter Bagehot, The Postulatesof Political Economy,
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On theotherhand,the tradesman, manufacturer, prothe the in his fessional man,thespecialist every seeks clients the as vocation, of decreaseover an everdifficulties traveland communication This is anotherway in whichthe widening area of territory. of mobility thepopulation may be measured. However, mobility in an individual in a population measured, merely or is not by of changeof location, but rather the number by and variety the or to stimulations whichthe individual the population responds. Mobility depends, merely not upon transportation, uponcombut of munication. Educationand the abilityto read,the extension themoneyeconomy an ever-increasing to of number theinterests oflifein so faras it has tendedto depersonalize social relationsall thesehave vastlyincreased mobility modern the of peoples.
As isolation maybe due to theexistence purely of physical barriers comto munication, to a peculiarity temperament a lack of education, or of and so
The termmobility, like its correlative, isolation, covers a wide rangeof phenomena. It may represent the same timea characterand a condition. at
mobility maybe a consequence thenaturalmeansofcommunication, ofan of or agreeablemanner and a collegeeducation. It is now clearlyrecognized thatwhat we ordinarily a lack of intellicall gencein individuals, races,and communities, frequently resultof isolation. is a On the other hand, the mobilityof a population is unquestionably very a large factorin its intellectual development. There is an intimate connection betweenthe immobility the primitive of man and his so-calledinability use abstractideas. The knowledge to whicha is peasantordinarily possesses, from verynatureofhis occupation, concrete the and personal. He knows individually and personallyeverymemberof the flock tends. He becomesin the courseof yearsso attachedto the land he he tillsthat the meretransposition from the stripof soil on whichhe has grown up, to anotherwithwhichhe is less intimately acquaintedis feltby himas a personalloss. For such a man the neighboring valley,or even the stripof land at theotherend ofthevillageis in a certain sensealienterritory.A large part of the peasant's efficiency an agricultural as laborerdependsupon this intimateand personalacquaintance with the idiosyncrasies a singleplot of of land to the care of whichhe has been bred. It is apparentthat underconditionslike these,verylittleof the peasant'spracticalknowledge will take the abstractformof scientific generalization. He thinksin concretetermsbecause he knowsand needs no other. On the other hand, the intellectual characteristics the Jew and his of in generally recognized interest abstractand radical ideas are unquestionably connectedwiththe fact that the Jewsare, beforeall else, a city folk. 'The
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the to terms withwhich describe various abstract Wandering acquires Jew' is of he scenes which visits. His knowledge theworld baseduponidentities Rearedin and classification. that and differences, is to say, on analysis place,conof withthebustleand business themarket association intimate in and gameof buying selling on and intent theshrewd fascinating stantly of he he that money, hasneither interestingabstractions, which employs most to attachment places to thatintimate nor opportunity inclination cultivate person.' of which characteristictheimmobile is and persons Concentrationof populations in cities, the wider markets,the division of labor, the concentrationof individuals and groups on special tasks, have continually changed the material conditions of life, and in doing this have made readjustments to novel necessary. Out of thisnecessitytherehave conditionsincreasingly grown up a number of special organizationswhich exist for the special purpose of facilitatingthese readjustments. The market whichbroughtthe modem cityinto existenceis one of thesedevices. More interesting,however, are the exchanges, particularly the stock exchange,and the board of trade,wherepricesare constantly being made in responseto changes or ratherthe reportsof changes in economic conditionsall over the world. These reports,so far as they are calculated to cause readjustments,have the characterof what we call news. It is the existence of a critical situation which converts what were otherwisemere information into news. Where there is an issue at stake; where, in short, there is crisis, there information which might affectthe outcome one way or anotherbecomes "live matter," as the newspaper men say. Live matteris news; dead matteris mereinformation. etc. of to Whatis therelation mobility suggestion, imitation, ? are and devices which What thepractical are suggestibility mobility by or in increased a community inan individual? in to conditions communities corresponding Are there pathological and in hysteria individuals?If so, how are theyproduced how con? trolled of an is To whatextent fashion indication mobility? in fashions customs and in Whatis thedifferencethemanner which aretransmitted?
t Cf.W. I.
p. BookofSocialOrigins, I69. Source Thomas,
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Whatarethecharacteristics progressive, thecharacteristics ofa what in ofa static, to to community respect itsresistance novel suggestions? of of Whatmental characteristicsthegypsy, thehobo,and of the nomad generally be traced these can to nomadic habits?
Thestock exchanges the and mob.-The exchanges, we uponwhich of to may watch the fluctuation pricesin response the news of in economicconditions different parts of the world,are typical. are Similarreadjustments takingplace in everydepartment of the social life,where, thesereadjusthowever, devicesformaking mentsare not so completeand perfect. For example,the professional and trade papers,whichkeep the professions the and in informed regard newmethods, trades to and experiences, devices, serveto keep themembers thesetradesand professions of abreast of the times,whichmeans that theyfacilitate readjustments to changig condcitions. There is, however,this important to distinction be made: in is Competition the exchanges moreintense; changesare more rapidand,as far theindividuals as directly concerned, more momentous. In contrast withsucha constellation forces we find of as on the exchanges, wherecompeting dealersmeet to buy and sell,so mobilea form social organization the crowdand the mob of as a exhibits relative stability. It is a commonplace thatdecisive in factors themovements of crowdsas in the fluctuations markets psychologic.This of are meansthatamongtheindividuals whomakeup thecrowd who or in composethepublicwhichparticipates themovements reflected in the market, condition instability a of existswhichcorresponds to what has been defined elsewhere crisis. It is trueof the as exchanges, it is of crowds, as that the situation theyrepresent is thatis to say, the tensions such thata slight alwayscritical, are causemayprecipitate enormous an effect. The current euphemism "the psychological moment"defines sucha critical condition. Psychological moments may arisein any social situation, but in theyoccurmorefrequently a society has which acquired high a stateofmobility. They occurmorefrequently a society in where education general, is whererailways, and telegraph, the primting press have becomean indispensable part of the social economy.
592
They occurmorefrequently citiesthanin smaller in communities. In the crowdand the public everymoment may be said to be "psychological." Crisis maybe said to be thenormal condition theexchanges. on are an of crisesare merely extension this WVhat called financial criticalconditionto the largerbusinesscommunity.Financial follow panicswhich sometimes uponfinancial crises a precipitate are of thiscritical condition. The fascinating thing about thestudyofcrises, ofcrowds, as is thatso faras theyare in factdue to psychological causes,thatis, of so faras theyare the resultof the mobility the communities in which they occur, theycan be controlled. The evidence this for is the factthat theycan be manipulated, thereis abundant and in evidence manipulation the transactions the stockmarket. of of The evidencefor the manipulation crowdsis less accessible. of a Labororganizations known howto develop pretty have,however, definite for and of technique the instigation control strikes. The SalvationArmyhas workedout a book of tacticswhichis very of devotedto thehandling street largely crowds;and professional like Billy Sunday,have an elaboratetechniquefor revivalists, revivals. their conducting
much has been written in Under the title of collectivepsychology recentyears in regardto crowdsand kindredphenomenaof social life. thusfarhas been based upon general observaMost thathas been written methods existforthe studyof thistypeof tion,and almostno systematic social organization. The practicalmethodswhichpracticalmenlike the the and politicalboss,thelaboragitator, stock-exchange speculator, others of have workedout forthe controland manipulation the public and the a from crowdfurnish bodyof materials whichit is possibleto makea more detailed,a more intimatestudyof what may be called, in orderto disit collective thatof morehighly behavior. tinguish from organized groups, In addition to these and other materialsalready indicated,there of the the are the histories notable mass movements, greatlabor strikes, etc. financial panics,religious revivals, and emotional A studymight made also of the sensations be reactions of individualswho participatein these mass movements. What is the mentalcondition individuals of underthe influence revivals, panics, of of and of loss of personalresponsietc. ? Is therea senseof loss of control, ? bility
HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN Tl1E CITY ENVIRONMENT
593
feel To what extentdoes the participant a mass movement exaltain in tion or depression? What is the difference the feelings whichaccompany financialpanics and religiousrevivals? to what extent are these ? effects are ? temporary to whatextent theypermanent financial What deviceshave beenusedto prevent panic? whatdevices to dispersemobs?
III. SECONDARY RELATIONS AND SOCIAL CONTROL
of Modern methods urbantransportation communicationand the electricrailway,the automobile, and the telephone-have in and silently rapidly changed recent yearsthesocialandindustrial of organization the modern city. They have been the meansof in traffic the businessdistricts;have changedthe concentrating wholecharacter retailtrade,multiplying residence of the suburbs in the and making department storepossible. These changes the industrial organization in the distribution population and of have in the habits,sentibeen accompanied corresponding by changes and of ments, character theurbanpopulation. The generalnatureof thesechangesis indicated the fact by of thatthegrowth citieshas beenaccompanied thesubstitution by of indirect, for "secondary," direct, face-to-face, "primary"relaof tionsin theassociations individuals thecommunity. in
"By primary groupsI mean thosecharacterized intimate by face-to-face associationand co-operation. They are primary severalsenses,but chiefly in in that they are fundamental forming social natureand ideals of the in the individual. The resultof intimateassociation,psychologically, a certain is in fusionof individualities a commonwhole,so that one's veryself,formany purposesat least, is the commonlifeand purposeof the group. Perhaps the thiswholeness by sayingthat it is a 'we'; it inis simplest way of describing volves the sort of sympathy and mutualidentification which'we' is the for naturalexpression. One lives in the feeling the whole and findsthe chief of aims of his willin thatfeeling.. . . ."I Touch and sight,physicalcontact,are the basis for the firstand most elementaryhuman relationships. Mother and child, husband and wife, father son,masterand servant, and kinsman and neighbor, minister, physician, and teacher; theseare themostintimate realrelationships lifeand in the and of small community theyare practically inclusive. The interactions whichtake place amongthe members a community of so constituted immediate are and unreflecting.Intercourse carriedon largely is
I
Charles Horton Cooley, SocialOrganization,I5. p.
594
for and within region instinct feeling.Socialcontrol the of arises, themost in and sentiresponse personal to influences public partspontaneously,direct thantheformulaaccommodation rather ment. It is theresult a personal of of and tion a rational abstract principle. The church, school,and thefamily.-In a great city, where the is unstable,whereparentsand children employed are the population out of the house and oftenin distantparts of the city,wherethousands of people live side by side for years without so much as a bowing acquaintance, these intimate relationshipsof the primary group are weakened and the moral order which rested upon them is gradually dissolved. influencesof city life most of our Under the disintegrating traditional institutions,the church, the school, and the family, have been greatly modified. The school, for example, has taken of over some of the functions the family. It is around the public school and its solicitude for the moral and physical welfareof the childrenthat somethinglike a new neighborhoodand community spirit tends to get itself organized. The church, on the other hand, which has lost much of its influencesince the printed page has so largely taken the place of the pulpit in the interpretation life, seems at present to be of in process of readjustmentto the new conditions. should It is important the church, school, the and thefamily that to be studied from point viewofthisreadjustment theconditions the of ofcity life. sentiWhatchanges have takenplacein recent yearsin thefamily wives?of wivestoward ments?in the attitudes husbands of toward etc.? of toward husbands? children parents, in courts indicate of and morals Whatdo the records the juvenile to regard thismatter? life family changed? to taken To what extent these have changes placeinresponse theinfluencesofthecityenvironment? on be to investigations might carried withreference the Similarly attitude changed and is and too, school thechurch. Here, there a changed This because in to environment. is important policy response a changed in institutionswhich immediate the it is, in thelastanalysis, uponthese a that andvitalinterests lifefind corporate of expression socialorganizationultimately rests.
In what regionsof social life have the moreson the subject of the
595
and It is probably breaking the downoflocal attachments the and of weakening the restraints inhibitions the primary of group, whichare largely of underthe influence the urbanenvironment, of for responsible the increase vice and crimein greatcities. It in to wouldbe interesting thisconnection determine investigaby in tionhow farthe increase crime keepspace withtheincreasing thispointofviewthatwe of mobility thepopulation. It is from all whichregister disthe shouldseek to interpret thosestatistics for of of the integration themoralorder, example statistics divorce, oftruancy, ofcrime. and
In what regionsand classes are certainkindsof crimeendemic? In what classes does divorceoccur most frequently? What is the in difference this respectbetweenfarmers and, say, actors? To what extentin any given racial group,forexample,the Italians live in the in New York or the Poles in Chicago,do parentsand children same world,speak the same language,and sharethe same ideas, and how foundaccount forjuveniledelinquency that parin fardo the conditions ticulargroup? for How far are the home moresresponsible criminal manifestations of an immigrant group?
on truancy, divorce, on crime? and on
of of of What is the effect ownership property, particularly thehome,
of Crisis and thecourts.-It is characteristic citylifethat all sortsofpeoplemeetand mingle who together neverfully compreand hendone another. The anarchist theclubman,thepriest and who touchelbowson the Levite, the actor and the missionary still different worlds. So complete the is thestreet, livein totally of segregation vocationalclasses that it is possiblewithinthe of limits thecityto livein an isolation almostas complete that as ruralcommunity. of someremote of WalterBesant tellsthefollowing anecdote his experience as of editor thePeople's Palace Journal:
"In that capacityI endeavoredto encourageliterary in effort, the hope and of oflighting upon someunknown latentgenius. The readers theJournal of withthe educationalside of werethemembers the variousclassesconnected the place. They wereyoungclerkschiefly-someof themverygood fellows. They had a debating societywhich I attended fromtime to time. Alas! They carriedon theirdebates in an ignorancethe most profound, most the and the most satisfied. I endeavoredto persuadethemthat it unconscious,
596
was desirable leastto master facts thecase before at the of they spoke. In vain. ThenI proposed subjects essays, offered for and prizes verses. I for all to of discovered, myamazement, among thethousands these that, young lads there notdiscoverable leastrudimentary was people, andgirls, the indicaare tionof any literary powerwhatever.In all othertownsthere young peoplewhonourish literary ambitions, somemeasure literary with of ability. How should there anyin thistown, be no where there were books, papers, no no journals, at thattime, free and, no libraries ?", In the immigrantcolonies which are now well established in every large city, foreignpopulations live in an isolation which is fromthat of the population of East London, but in some different respectsmore complete. is little The differencethateachoneofthese colonies a more less has or and independent political socialorganization itsown, is thecenter a of and of or nationalist more lessvigorous each propaganda.Forexample, oneofthese in groups one or more has papers printed its ownlanguage. In New York there 270 publications, ofthem are most City supported the by localpopulation, in there 19 dailypapers are printed 23 different languages.In Chicago pubwitha combined of lishedin 7 foreign languages dailycirculation 368,0o0 papers. Under these conditions the social ritual and the moral order which these immigrantsbrought with them from their native countries have succeeded in maintaining themselves for a conof siderable time under the influences the American environment. Social control,based on the home mores, breaks down, however, in the second generation. We may express the relation of the city to this fact in general terms by saying that the effectof the urban environmentis to of all intensify effects crisis. in 'crisis' nottobeunderstooda violent is sense. It isinvolved "The term in is when leaves he in anydisturbance habit. There a crisis theboy'slife of of and of home. The emancipation thenegro theimmigrationtheEuropean or are three crises. Anystrain crisis involves peasant group possible changes: or reduced 'survival' greater fitness, efficiency,death. In biological terms, means successful to adjustment crisis, accompanied typically a modification by In mental stimulation greater and or ofstructure. manit means intelligence, in mental depression, caseoffailure."2
of American Journal Sociology, and to Reference theImmigrant Negro," Particular XVII (May,I9I2), p. 736.
I Walter East London, I3. p. Besant, with 2William I. Thomas,"Race Psychology: and Standpoint Questionnaire
597
individuals in Undertheconditions imposed citylife, which by in and of removed sympathy underwidely and groups individuals, if under conditions interdependence, of live together standing, altered are of the not ofintimacy, conditions socialcontrol greatly increased. and thedifficulties
as characterizedoneof'assimilation.' Theproblem created usually thus is in is cities due increase crime ourlarge of for It is assumed thereason rapid that in has in element ourpopulation notsucceeded to thefactthattheforeign to mores. and American culture doesnotconform theAmerican assimilating iftrue, thefacts seemto suggest perhaps that but Thiswould interesting, be in direction. be thetruth must sought theopposite facts conby "One of themostimportant established theinvestigation children immigrants-the of 'secondgeneration.' cernsthe American-born in during of Sessions The records convictions theNewYorkCourt General of October I908, to June I909, andofall commitments to from 30, theperiod i, thoseto thestatefarm, the Massachusetts during institutions, except penal. the of analysis thecriminal September I909, form basisofthis 30, year ending of tendencies thesecond generation. exists thepartof on it thata cleartendency records appears "Fromthese or to from in generation the thesecond generation differ thefirst immigrant thatthis difference is much It of more character itscriminality. alsoappears of of in of frequently thedirection thecriminality theAmerican-bornnondirection.Thismeans than thatthe immigrant parentage it is intheopposite crime the of to peculiar movement thesecond-generation is awayfrom crimes of those theAmerican native of and parentage.Sometimes immigrants toward even has thatof criminality beyond thismovement carried second-generation of thenative-born nativeparentage.Of thesecond-generation subgroups a adherence thegeneral to one to mitted thiscomparison, maintains constant at fail all it. abovereferred while theothers some point tofollow This rule to, is generation."' unique group theIrishsecond What we do observe, as a result of the crisis, is that control based on moreswas replaced by controlbased on that was formerly positive law. This change runsparallel to themovementby which secondary relationshipshave taken the place of primaryrelationships in the association of individualsin the city environment. that States of should It is characteristictheUnited political changes great of or under the be effected experimentally thepressure agitation upon initiative no in Thereis probably other minorities. of smallbut militant country the " " are as time in so world which many reforms inprogress at thepresent inthe
I
Immigration Commission, VI, pp. I4-I6. Vol. Reports theUnited of States
598
UnitedStates. Reform in factbecomea kindof popular"indoor sport." has The reforms thus effected, almost withoutexception,involve some sort of restriction governmental or controlover activitiesthat were formerly "free" or controlled onlyby themoresand publicopinion.
of The effect this extensionof what is called the police power in has been to producea change,not merely the fundamental policy of the law, but in the characterand standingof the courts. The Juvenile and Morals courts illustratea change which is perhaps taking place elsewhere. In these courts the judges have assumed something of the functions of administrativeofficers, less in the interpretation law than in preof theirduties consisting scribing remedies and administeringadvice intended to restore delinquentsbroughtbeforethem to theirnormal places in society. A similar tendency to give judges a wide discretionand to impose upon them a furtherresponsibilityis manifest in those of courtswhichhave to deal with the technicalaffairs the business world, and in the growthin popularity of commissionsin which Judicialand administrativefunctionsare combined, for example, the Interstate Commerce Commission.
in In orderto interpret a fundamental way the factsin regardto social controlit is importantto start with a clear conceptionof the nature of
An following experiment. ant was placedin theliquids(bloodand lymph) and of out the squeezed from bodies nestcompanions was then backinto put
are ceive how suggestions conveyedfromone mind to another. This does of not implythat thereis any special form consciousness, special senseof any of to action. kinshipor consciousness kind,necessary explaincorporate been shownthatin the case ofcertain In factit has recently highly organlike thatofthewell-known probably ized and staticsocieties, that ant, nothing takesplace. we wouldcall communication a fact from nest and after"It is a well-known that if an ant be removed an whilealmostinvariably ant belonging wardput back it willnotbe attacked, to to anothernest will be attacked. It has been customary use the words in this fact. Now Bethe made the memory, enmity, friendship, describing
action. corporate action when there some ofcommunication is sort between Corporate begins a individuals who constitute group. Communication take place at may to different levels; thatis, suggestions be givenand responded on the may or levels. The mechanism comof instinctive, senso-motor, ideo-motor in so is thatit is often municationvery difficult conto subtile, subtile, fact,
599
the its nest; it was not attacked. It was thenput in the juice taken from inmatesofa 'hostile' nestand was at once attackedand killed."' in will instance themanner whichants communicate illustrate of A further level. may communication becomeon theinstinctive howsimpleand automatic fromthe nest for the first time, "An ant, when takinga new direction by always returns the same path. This shows that some trace must be left by behindwhichservesas a guideback to the nest. If the ant returning this ants trythisdirection. But ifit thatno other pathbearno spoils,Bethefound bringback honeyor sugar,otherants are sure to trythe path. Hence somecarriedover thispath by the ants mustremainon the thingof the substances mustbe strong the enoughto affect antschemically."2 path. These substances simpledevice factis that by means of this comparatively The important corporateaction is made possible. way, but they Individualsnot only react upon one anotherin this reflex and organicexcitements, attitudes, theirsentiments, inevitably communicate react, not merelyto what each individual and in doing so they necessarily desires,or hopes to do. The factthat actuallydoes, but to what he intends, and oftenbetraysentiments attitudesto othersof whichtheyare individuals makesit possiblefor individual for conscious A, example, themselves onlydimly and tensionsin B as soon or even beforeB is able to do to act upon motives A so. Furthermore may act upon the suggestionsthat emanate fromB whichhis motives withouthimself beingclearlyconsciousof the sourcefrom be individuals may thereactions whichcontrol spring. So subtleand intimate in who are bound together a social-psychological process. and control that It is upon thebasis of thissortofinstinctive spontaneous mustbe based in orderto be effective. sortofcontrol everymoreformal
Changes in the formof social controlmay for the purposes of be investigation groupedunder the generalheads: and of law forcustom, theextension of i. The substitution positive left that initiacontrol activities were to formerly to individual municipal tiveanddiscretion. and criminal of courtsto 2. The disposition judgesin municipal ofthe so function thattheadministration criminal administrative assume and becomes of an law ceasesto be a mere application thesocialritual and of expert knowledge methods, requiring application rational technical to and in the the to oradvice, order restore individual society repair injury has thathis delinquency caused. the in and isolated among different 3. Changes divergences themores for in of and segregated groups thecity. Whatare themores, example, ? ? ? the ? theshopgirltheimmigrant politicianandthelaboragitator
I Jacques pp. of Brain, 220-2I. Physiologythe Loeb,Comparative 2Ibid., p. 22I.
600
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY It shouldbe the aim of theseinvestigations distinguish merely to not the causes of these changes, the directionin which they are moving, but also the forcesthat are likelyto minimize and neutralize them. For it to example, is important knowwhether motives the whichare at present multiplying positive restrictions the individualwill necessarily the on go as farin thiscountry theyhave alreadydonein Germany. Will they as socialism? eventually bringabout a conditionapproaching
limit, control, and stamp out the vice trafficand to do away with the use and sale of liquor. Among the things that we should desire to know are:
of the humannatureupon whichthe commerce been erected, has (2) of the social conditionswhich tend to convertthe normalappetites into social vices, (3) of the practical effects the efforts of to
(i)
the conditions of city life, can, perhaps, be best studied in its attempts to stamp out vice and control the liquor traffic. The saloon and the vice establishments have come into existence as a means of exploiting appetites and instincts fundamental to human nature. This makes the efforts that have been made to regulate and suppress these forms of exploitation and traffic interesting and important as subjects of investigation. Such an investigation should be based upon thorough study:
Commercialized and theliquor traffic.-Socialcontrol,under vice
To what extent is the appetite for alcoholic stimulusa pre-natal ? disposition To what extentmay such an appetitebe transferred from form one of to stimulation another; that is, e.g., from to whiskey cocaine,etc.? To what extentis it possibleto substitute normaland healthful for pathologicaland vicious stimulations? What are the social and moraleffects secretdrinking? of Where a taboo is establishedearly in life does it have the effect of of idealizingthe delights indulgence? Does it do thisin some cases and not in others? If so, what are the contributing circumstances? Do lose thetastefor mensuddenly stimulants Whatarethe ? liquorand other conditions underwhichthishappens? can Many ofthesequestions be answered onlyby a studyofindividual have theirnatural historylike certain experiences. Vices undoubtedly forms disease. Theymaytherefore regarded independent of be as entities, whichfindtheirhabitatin humanenvironment, stimulated certain are by inhibited others, invariably but conditions, by exhibit all through changes a character that is typical.
6oi
had the movement something In theearlydays thetemperance were highly picof revival,and the effects character a religious turesque. In recentyears the leaders have displayeda more still againstthe liquortraffic but deliberate strategy, the struggle a has all the characteristics a big popularmovement, moveof the is conquered ruraldistricts, now ment havingat length which, advancing upon the cities. On the otherhand, the vice crusadestartedwith the cities, vice wherein fact commercialized is indigenous.The meredischange cussionof thissubjectin publichas meantan enormous is in the sex mores. The fact that this movement everywhere of coincident withthe entrance womeninto partypoliticsis significant.
to cities, (referred to peculiar thelifeof great Thereare conditions of of under heading the "Mobility thePopulation GreatCities")which difficult. example, For crusades of make the control vice especially in city movements do andreligious generally nothavethesamesuccess the and less heterogeneous comthat environment theydo in the smaller makethistrue? which munities.Whatare theconditions in with worth the most studying connection themovePerhaps facts indicate changes the which which for of ment suppression viceare those, with in to havetaken particularly reference placeinfifty years sexmores, and in as and and whatis regarded modest immodest thedress behavior, are sexualmatters nowdiswithwhich to withreference the freedom women. menand young cussed young by in of in as It seems, fact, ifwe were thepresence twoepoch-making to destined seems liquors the finally putintoxicating changes, onewhich and to the of in thecategory poisonous drugs, theother lift taboowhich, has prevented to up peoples, effectually among Anglo-Saxon particularly of of time discussion thefacts sex. thepresent thefrank
is at and publicity.-There everywhere present a Partypolitics branchof the to disposition increasethe powerof the executive of at government the expenseof the legislative. The influence in has and statelegislatures of citycouncils beendiminished some and of instances the introduction the referendum the recall. by reasonforthesechangesis form government.The ostensible of
In others they have been largely superseded by the commission the power of the prothat they offera means for overthrowing The real groundseems to me the recognition fessionalpoliticians.
602
whichhad its originin the of the fact that the formof government and was wellsuitedto the needs of a small community townmeeting of based on primaryrelationsis not suitable to the government the changingand heterogeneouspopulations of cities of three or four millions. and uponthecharacter sizeofthepopulation. depends Much, course, of and is citizens not too of it stock, thenumber voting Where is ofAmerican can schoolof politics be no and greatforthorough calmdiscussion, better jobbery to more affairs certain prevent of nor imagined, anymethod managing however, When, and vigilance breedcontentment. to and waste, stimulate or persons, and, hundred has to seven eight meeting grown exceed thetown such are section strangers, as Irishor whenany considerable still more, the into who poured New England, instituCanadians, havelatterly French for the is factions because multitude toolarge debate, works perfectly less tion in untrained self-government, to up, are likely spring and the immigrants, or of the demagogues.' pullers petty become prey wire have become, For one thing,the problemsof city government with the growthand organizationof city life,so complicatedthatit is no longerdesirableto leave themto the controlofmen whoseonly qualificationforhandlingthem consistsin the fact that they have succeeded in gaining officethrough the ordinary machineryof ward politics. Another circumstancewhich has made the selection of city officials popular vote impractical,under the conditionsof city by is the fact that, except in special cases, the voter knows little life, or nothing about the officialshe is voting for; knows little or to of is nothingabout the functions the office which that official to be elected; and, besides all the rest,is too busy elsewhereto inform about conditionsand needs of the city as a whole. himself At a recentelectionin Chicago, forexample,voterswere called upon to select candidates from a ballot containing 250 names, most of them unknownto the voters. Under these circumstances relieson some more or the citizen who wishes to vote intelligently adviser less interestedorganizationor some more or less interested to tell him how to vote. To meet this emergency, created primarily by conditions imposed by city life, two types of organization have come into
I JamesBryce, The American I, Commonwealth, 566.
603
crises thatwe call elections. for thoseartificial existence controlling boss represented the political by One of theseis the organization machine. The otheris that represented the by and the political and voters' associations, organizaindependent leagues,taxpayers' research. tionslikethebureausofmunicipal
in conditions which primitive our It is an indication the rather of to the that wereformed they on sought govern country political parties for evils theprinciple the remedy all sortsof administrative was that to "turntherascals out,"as thepopular phrase expressed a change it, and bosshavecome The machine thepolitical ofgovernment. political in of politics. The parties were necesintoexistence theinterest party machine merely is elections.The political a sarily organized capture to of this for deviceinvented the purpose achieving end. The technical the to who bossis theexpert runs machine.He is as necessary thewinto at as coach ning anelection a professional isnecessary success football. of
of the votethat have grown forthepurpose controlling popular up that is to say, primary relationships.The second,the personal, make theirappeal to the public, good-government organizations, understand that expression, a is and the public,as we ordinarily Members a publicare of relationships. groupbased on secondary not as a rulepersonally acquainted. to is machine in factan attempt maintain, inside The political of of theformal administrative organization thecity,thecontrol a thusbuiltup, of whichTamprimary group. The organizations feudal appearto be thoroughly manyHall is theclassicillustration, betweenthe boss and his ward in theircharacter. The relations on thatof personal loyalty one side captainseem to be precisely on and personalprotection the other,whichthe feudalrelation calls which suchan organization out are the implies. The virtues to and of old tribal ones offidelity, loyalty, devotion theinterests the their the chief and the clan. The peoplewithin organization, a whilethe restof consitute "we"-group, friends supporters, and is the which not quitealive and not thecityis merely outerworld, the conditions of are. We have here something approaching
primitive society. quite human in the sense in which the membersof the "we "-group the first,the political machine, is based, on the whole, on local,
It is characteristicof the two types of organization which
604
is society' whichwe oughtto form that of of "The conception 'primitive over a territory.The size of the groupsis determined small groupsscattered by the conditionsof the strugglefor existence. The internalorganization to of each group corresponds its size. A group of groups may have some and alliance,connubium, commerrelationto each other(kin,neighborhood, themfrom others. Thus and differentiates cium) whichdrawsthemtogether and or arises between ourselves,the we-group, in-group, a differentiation in out-groups. The insiders a we-group else, or the others-groups, everybody to and of law, government, industry, each other. are in a relation peace, order, is or Their relationto all outsiders, others-groups, one of war and plunder, it. have modified exceptso faras agreements and that of hosof and "The relation comradeship peace in the we-group are correlativeto each other. The tility and war towards other-groups exigenciesof war with outsidersare what make peace inside, lest internal discord should weaken the we-groupfor war. These exigenciesalso make in and government law in the in-group, orderto preventquarrelsand enforce discipline.",
abundant materials for The politics of most great cities offers by the studyof the type represented the politicalboss as well as the social mechanisms created by and embodied in the political mathat we studythemdisinterestedly. however, chine. It is necessary, Some of the questions we should seek to answer are: is at of organization anypoint What,as a matter fact, thepolitical and and the within city? Whatare thesentiments attitudes interests it? find through which expression for its it devices employs mobilizing forces Whatare thepractical into them action? andputting in moral of is appeal thedifferent regions What thecharacter theparty is the ofwhich city made ? up is in and How muchof theinterest politics practical howmuchis mere sport? ? is of of What part thecostofelections advertising Howmuch itcan is and as be classed "educational publicity," howmuch puregraft? under as particularly we find conditions, existing To whatextent, controlled purely techcan be in by them great cities, elections practically spell bindersprocessions, torch-light nicaldevices,card catalogues, machinery? and have will of Whateffect theintroduction thereferendum recall in elections cities? of methods conducting uponpresent and social control.-Jn contrast with the political Advertising machine, which has founded its organized action on the local,
I
p. Sumner,Folkways, 12.
605
interests represented the different by personal,and immediate organizations, the and neighborhoods localities, good-government and the like have soughtto research, the bureausof municipal of the represent interests thecityas a wholeand have appealedto neither and localnorpersonal. Theseagencies a sentiment opinion by efficiency goodgovernment theeducaand to havesought secure and the tionofthevoter, thatis to say,by investigating publishing the factsregarding government. formof In this way publicity has come to be a recognized advertising"-hasbecome and socialcontrol, advertising-"social by supported a body of a profession withan elaboratetechnique specialknowledge.
of It is one of thecharacteristic phenomena citylifeand of society should have come founded secondary on relationships advertising that to occupy importantplacein itseconomy. a so which had to has and In recent individual organization yearsevery and the outside smaller more dealwith public, is to saythepublic the that has of intimate communities thevillageand smalltown, cometo have itspressagent, man less an advertising thana diplomatic whois often at manaccredited the them and to newspapers, through to theworld large. the and Institutions theRussellSage Foundation, to a less extent, like directly opinion General Boardhavesought influence to public Education uponMedical the of Report through medium publicity.The Carnegie Report the the Survey, RussellSage Foundation Education, Pittsburgh in on Comparative CostsofPublic-School Education theSeveral States, a are something morethanscientific reports.They are rather high and form journalism, with conditions critically, seeking existing of dealing The of the to about radicalreforms. through agency publicity bring in of work theBureau Municipal of Research NewYorkhashada similar must addedthework be accomplished the by purpose. To these practical in undertaken different parts child-welfare by exhibits, thesocialsurveys and in of health. ofthecountry, by similar propaganda favor public
rather thanthemoresbecomesthe of custom, and publicopinion force socialcontrol. in dominant
secondarygroups and in the city, fashion tends to take the place
on of founded secondary greatcities in societies relationships which are a type. In thecityevery socialgrouptendsto createits own the becomefixed, morestendto milieuand, as theseconditions to accommodatethemselves the conditionsthus created. In
As a source of social controlpublic opinion becomes important
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THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY
In any attempt understand nature publicopinion to the of and its relation social control, is important investigate of to it to first all theagencies and deviceswhich have comeintopractical in use theeffort control, to enlighten, exploit and it. The first and themostimportant theseis thepress,thatis of thedailynewspaper other and forms current of literature including booksclassedas current.' Afterthe newspaper, bureausof research the whichare now up and springing in all thelargecitiesare themostinteresting the mostpromising devicesforusingpublicity a meansof control. as The fruitsof these investigations not reach the public do directly, are disseminated but the through mediumof thepress, the pulpit,and othersourcesof popularenlightenment. In addition thesethere theeducational to are in campaigns the interest better of healthconditions, child-welfare the exhibits, and thenumerous "social advertising" devices which nowemployed, are of sometimes upon theinitiative privatesocieties, sometimes upon thatof popularmagazines newspapers, orderto educatethe in or publicand enlistthe massesof the people in the movement for the improvement conditions community of of life. The newspaper the greatmedium communication is of within the city,and it is on thebasis oftheinformation which supplies it thatpublicopinionrests. The first function whicha newspaper suppliesis that which was formerly performed the village by In spite, however, the industry of with which newspapers and human interest, pursue facts of personalintelligence they cannot as a meansofsocialcontrol. withthevillage compete gossips For one thing,the newspaper maintains some reservations not in recognized gossip, thematters personal of by intelligence.For untiltheyrunforoffice commit or someother overtact example, that bringsthem beforethe public conspicuously, private the life of individualmen or womenis a subject that is for the taboo. It is not so withgossip,partlybecause in a newspaper small community individualis so obscurethat his private no affairs and escape observation discussion;partly becausethefield
z Cf. Bryce,TheAmerican Commonwealth, p. 267.
gossip.
607
is smaller. In small communities thereis a perfectly amazing amountof personal information afloatamongtheindividuals who compose them. The absenceofthisin thecityis what,in largepart,makesthe citywhatit is.
and are: thenewspaper ofpublicity generally
Someofthequestions thatarisein regard thenatureand function to of
monopoly?
IV.
? controlled public sentiment by What is a "fake" and why? What is yellowjournalism and whyis it yellow? What would be the effectof making the newspapera municipal What is the difference and betweenadvertising news?
TEMPERAMENT AND THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT
? ? those an artist a historianormerely of ? they those a brigand of To whatextent is doesthenewspaper control to whatextent it and
What is news? What are the methodsand motives of the newspaperman? Are
of Great citieshave always been the melting-pots races and ofcultures. Out ofthevividand subtle of interactions which they there have been the centers, have comethenewer breedsand the newersocial types. The great cities of the United States, for example,have drawnfromthe isolationof theirnative villages of great masses of the ruralpopulations Europe and America. of Underthe shockof the new contactsthe latentenergies these of and the subtler primitive peopleshave been released, processes have brought into existence, interaction not merelyvocational, but temperamental types. Mobilization theindividual and of man.-Transportation communication haveeffected, but among manyother silent far-reaching of what I have called the "mobilization the individual changes, the of man." They have multiplied opportunities the individual man forcontactand forassociationwith his fellows, but they have made these contactsand associations more transitory and A verylargepart of the populations greatcities, less stable. of thosewho make theirhomesin tenements apartand including menthouses,livemuchas peopledo in somegreathotel,meeting
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of one but not knowing another. The effect thisis to substitute for and casual relationship the more intimateand fortuitous of community. associations the smaller permanent statusis determined the Underthesecircumstances individual's and signs-by fashion degreeby conventional to a considerable on to reduced skating thin "front"-and the art of lifeis largely and studyof styleand manners. surfaces a scrupulous but and Not onlytransportation communication, thesegregation of the of the urban populationtends to facilitate mobility the establishmoral individualman. The processesof segregation touch worlds which distances makethecitya mosaicoflittle which This makesit possibleforindividuals but do not interpenetrate. and one moralmilieuto another to pass quicklyand easilyfrom of but experiment livingat the encourages fascinating dangerous but perhaps, widely thesame timein severaldifferent contiguous, worlds. All thistendsto give to citylifea superficial separated socialrelationand adventitious character;it tendsto complicate individualtypes. It ships and to producenew and divergent an of at introduces, thesame time, element chanceand adventure, of whichadds to the stimulus citylifeand givesit foryoungand fresh nervesa peculiarattractiveness.The lureof greatcitiesis uponthe of act a which directly perhaps consequence stimulations like it reflexes.As a typeof humanbehavior may be explained, as for of the attraction theflame themoth, a sortof tropism. to is of The attraction themetropolis due in part,however, the finds somewhere among factthatin thelongruneveryindividual in of the variedmanifestations citylife the sortof environment in whichhe expandsand feelsat ease; finds, short,the moral that in natureobtainsthe stimulations climate whichhis peculiar bringhis innate qualities to full and freeexpression.It is, I basis,notin interest of have their motives thiskindwhich suspect, and morefundamental but nor even in sentiment, in something whichdraw many,if not most,of the youngmen and primitive into of homesin thecountry from security their the women young of and confusion excitement citylife. In a small thebig,booming or eccentricity it man,theman without community is thenormal who seemsmostlikelyto succeed. The smallcommunity genius,
609
often tolerates eccentricity. The city, thecontrary, on rewards it. nor the Neitherthe criminal, defective, the geniushas the same in to opportunity develop his innate disposition a small town, in thathe invariably finds a greatcity. Fiftyyearsago everyvillagehad one or two eccentric charwitha benevolent acterswho weretreatedordinarily toleration, but who were regarded as and queer. meanwhile impracticable These exceptional individuals livedan isolatedexistence, off cut of from whether geniusor of defect, by theirveryeccentricities, with theirfellows. If they had genuinely intimateintercourse of themaking criminals, restraints inhibitions thesmall of the and community rendered them harmless. If they thestuff genius had of or in them, they remained sterile lack ofappreciation opportunfor of ity. MarkTwain'sstory Pudd'n Head Wilsonis a description of and unappreciated one suchobscure genius. It is notso trueas it was thatFull manya flower bornto blushunseen is And waste its fragrance the desertair. on
Gray wrotethe "Elegy in a CountryChurchyard" beforethe of existence the moderncity. In thecitymanyof thesedivergent a typesnowfind milieuin whichforgood or forill theirdispositions talentsparturate and and bearfruit.
In the investigation those exceptionaland temperamental of types which the city has produced,we should seek to distinguish, far as as possible,betweenthose abstractmentalqualities upon which technical excellenceis based and those more fundamental native characteristics in whichfindexpression temperament. We may therefore ask: To what extentare the moralqualitiesof individuals based on native character? To what extentare they conventionalized habits imposed the uponby themor takenoverby themfrom group? What are the native qualities and characteristics upon which the moralor immoralcharacteraccepted and conventionalized the group by are based? What connection what divorce appears to exist betweenmental or and moralqualitiesin thegroupsand in theindividuals them? composing Are criminalsas a rule of a lower order of intelligence than noncriminals? If so, what typesof intelligence associatedwithdifferent are
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THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY of types crime? For example, professional do burglars professional and men confidence represent different mental types? Whatare theeffects uponthesedifferent of isolation of types and mobility, stimulus ofrepression? of and To what extentcan playgrounds otherforms recreation and of supply stimulation the which otherwise is sought invicious for pleasures ? in To whatextent vocational can guidance assistindividuals finding in a of vocations which they willbe able to obtain free expression their temperamental qualities?
The moral region.-It is inevitable that individuals who seek the same formsof excitement,whetherthat excitementbe furnished by a horse race or by grand opera, should find themselves fromtime to time in the same places. The result of this is that, in the organizationwhich city life spontaneouslyassumes, a disposition of the population manifestsitself to segregateitself,not merelyin accordance with its interests,but in accordance with its tastes or its temperaments. The resultingdistributionof the fromthat broughtabout population is likely to be quite different or by occupational interests economicconditions. Every neighborhood, under the influenceswhich tend to distributeand segregatecity populations,may assume the character of a "moral region." Such, for example, are the vice districts, which are found in most cities. A moral regionis not necessarily a place of abode. It may be a mere rendezvous, a place of resort. in In order understand forces to to the which every large tend develop city in and thesedetached milieus, which vagrant suppressed impulses, passions, from moral andidealsemancipate themselves thedominant it order, isnecesto or of of saryto refer thefact theory latent impulses men. The factseemsto be thatmenarebrought theworld into with the all uncontrolled undisciplined. and Civilizaand passions, instincts, appetites, in the of demands suppression sometion, theinterests thecommon welfare, and the control of In times, always, thesewild,natural dispositions. the process imposing discipline of its uponthe individual, making in overthe in withtheaccepted is individual accordance much supcommunity model, a in and more finds vicarious pressed altogether, much expression forms that are socially or valuable, at least innocuous.It is at thispointthatsport, to play, and art function. They permit individual purgehimself the by means symbolic of of wildandsuppressed expression these impulses.Thisis in thecatharsis which and has of Aristotle wrote hisPoetic which beengiven
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of Freud by newand more positive significance theinvestigations Sigmund and thePsycho-Analysts.I suchas strikes, socialphenomena wars,popular No doubtmanyother function releasing in a the and revivals, perform similar elections, religious smaller communities socialrelations where subconscious tensions.Butwithin there more exceptional aremore intimate inhibitions imperative, aremany and no and the of activity normal individuals find who within limits thecommunal individual and andhealthful of aptitudes temperaments. expression their The causes whichgive rise to what are here describedas "moral " whichurban lifeimposes; regions are due in part to the restrictions in part to the license which these same conditionsoffer. We have to until very recently given much consideration the temptationsof to citylife,but we have not given the same consideration the effects of inhibitionsand suppressionsof natural impulses and instincts life. For one thing, under the changed conditionsof metropolitan whichin the countryare countedas an asset become in the children citya liability. Aside fromthis fact it is very much more difficult to rear a familyin the citythan on the farm. Marriage takes place it later in the city,and sometimes doesn't take place at all. These the significance which we are as yet of facts have consequences wholly unable to estimate. of involved well by might begin a study Investigation theproblems and comparison thecharacteristic of socialorganization of which types in referred to. exist theregions Whatare the external factsin regard the lifein Bohemia, to the "moral the and less District, other regions" proHalf-World, Red-Light in nounced character? of which themselves Whatis thenature thevocations connect with life theordinary of theseregions? Whatare thecharacteristic mental which attracted thefreedom are offer? which by they types find How do individuals theirway into theseregions? How do them? they escapefrom of To whatextent theregions are referred theproduct thelicense; to extent they to therestrictions are due life to what imposed city on the by man natural ? tance to the segregationof the poor, the vcious, the criminal,and a exceptionalpersons generally,which is so characteristic feature
' Cf.Dr. Sigmund The of Freud, Interpretation Dreams.
lendsspecialimporand Temperament socialcontagion.-What
612
in tendsto stimulate of citylife, the factthatsocial contagion is and differences, to divergent typesthe commontemperamental unitethemwiththenormal about characters which types suppress othersof their own ilk providesalso them. Associationwith have notmerely stimulus, a moralsupport thetraits a for they but in common in whichtheywouldnot find a less selectsociety. In crushed the greatcitythe poor,the vicious,and the delinquent, in and intimacy, breed and in, in together an unhealthful contagious occurred me thatthoselong to soul and body,so thatit has often of genealogies the Jukesand the Tribes of Ishmael would not showsuch a persistent distressing uniformity vice, crime, of and in and poverty unlesstheywerepeculiarly forthe environment fit which they condemned exist. are to mustthenacceptthese"moral regions"and the moreor WVe peoplewhoinhabit them, a sense, in less eccentric exceptional and if life at least,as partofthenatural notthenormal ofa city.
"moralregion" a by It is not necessary understand the expression to or that criminal abnormal.It is intended necessarily placeora society iseither in a it moral codeprevails, because rather apply regions which divergent to to in it as is a region which peoplewhoinhabit are dominated, peopleare the or not interest which ordinarily dominated, a tasteorbya passion bysome by has its roots in of nature theindividual.It maybe an directly theoriginal like differ from or would racing. Sucha region art,likemusic, a sport, horse are and socialgroups thefactthatitsinterests more immediate more other by For its are to fundamental. thisreason differences likely be due to moral isolation. rather thanintellectual it Because of the opportunity offers, particularlyto the exceptional and abnormal typesof man, a great city tends to spread out and lay bare to the public view in a massive manner all the char-
obscured and suppressed acters and traitswhich are ordinarily The city,in short, communities. showsthe good and in smaller or laboratory clinicin whichhumannatureand social processes and studied. maybe mostconveniently profitably
evil in human nature in excess. It is thisfact,perhaps,more than any other which justifiesthe view that would make of the city a

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The City: Suggestions for the Investigation of Human Behavior in the City Environment Author(s): Robert E.

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

Walter Besant, East London,pp. 7-9.

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

the stimulates demandforrational technical and methods, devices,

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

p. BookofSocialOrigins, I69. Source Thomas,

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN Tl1E CITY ENVIRONMENT

Charles Horton Cooley, SocialOrganization,I5. p.

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

on truancy, divorce, on crime? and on

of of of What is the effect ownership property, particularly thehome,

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

Immigration Commission, VI, pp. I4-I6. Vol. Reports theUnited of States

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

Commercialized and theliquor traffic.-Socialcontrol,under vice

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

It is characteristicof the two types of organization which

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

rather thanthemoresbecomesthe of custom, and publicopinion force socialcontrol. in dominant

secondarygroups and in the city, fashion tends to take the place

As a source of social controlpublic opinion becomes important

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE CITY ENVIRONMENT

lendsspecialimporand Temperament socialcontagion.-What

THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

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