Mathematics Refresher

PART 1

Indices Scientific Notation Engineering Notation Logarithms Radians Exercises

PART 2 Differentiation Integration

PART 1

Indices

The power of a number is indicated by an index, sometimes called an exponent. e.g. a4 = a x a x a x a Index Rules Rule a .a
m n

Example a
(m + n)

= = = =
= = =

a .a

= = =
=

a8 a2 a8
1

am an
(am)n a-m
a0 a
1/2

a(m - n) am.n
1 am 1 a
3

a6 a4
(a4)2
a-6 40 9
1/2

a6 = = =
3

1 9=3 8=2

a1/3

81/3

Scientific Notation

This is also known as standard form. There is one digit before the decimal point and the remaining significant figures after it. The number is multiplied by a power of 10 to give it its correct value. e.g. 70 = 7 x 10 700 = 7 x 100 = 7 x 10 x 10 = 7 x 102 7200 = 7.2 x 1000 = 7.2 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 7.2 x 103 Small numbers are represented using negative powers of ten. e.g. 6 0.006 = 1000 0.000083 = 100000 0.000000092 = 100000000 = 10 x 10 x 10 8.3 = 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 9.2 = 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 6 = 10
3

6 = 6 x 10-3 8.3 = 10
5

8.3 = 8.3 x 10-5 9.2 = 108 9.2 = 9.2 x 10-8

This representation of numbers is known as scientific notation.

Examples
Represent the following numbers in scientific notation

0.000000102 = 1.02 x 10-7 1.045600000000 = 1.0456 x 100 189,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 = 1.89 x 1023 2,300,000 = 2.3 x 106

Engineering Notation

Engineering Notation is similar to scientific notation except the powers are restricted to multiples of three and symbols are used to represent these powers. i.e.

Y Yotta 1024 Z Zetta 1021 E Exa 1018 P Peta 1015 T Tera 1012 G Giga 109 M Mega 106 k kilo 103 m milli 10-3 micro 10-6 nano 10-9 p pico 10-12 f femto 10-15 a atto 10-18 z zepto 10-21 y yocto 10-24 v vimto 10-27

Examples Number
45000000 80000 189000000000000000000000 0.00000065

Scientific Notation Engineering Notation

4.5 x 107 8 x 10
4 23

45M 80k 189Z 650

1.89 x 10 6.5 x 10

-7

Logarithms

A logarithm is a any positive number which is expressed as a power of some arbitrary number, which is called the base. For example. We know that 24 = 16 Instead of using the number 16, we use the index 4, and call it a logarithm (or log) of 16. Provided that we know that we are dealing with powers of 2 (the base number) we can always turn numbers into logs and logs into ordinary numbers. Putting this in the form of an equation. log216 = 4 Note the base number written as a subscript to the symbol log. Logs to the base e (where e = 2.7182818) are known as natural logarithms. Normally loge is written as ln e.g. y = ex ln y = x 3

Examples Index
2 =4 e2 = 7.389 10 = 100 b =y
x 2 2

Explanation
2 is the log of 4 to base 2 2 is the log of 7.389 to base e 2 is the log of 100 to base 10 x is the log of y to base b

Log
log24 = 2 ln 7.389 = 2 log10100 = 2 logby = x

Log Rules

log (m x n) = log m + log n log (m/n) = log m - log n log mn = n log m log (1/m) = -log m log 1 = 0

Examples
In each case solve for x i. 3 = log6x x = 63 x = 216 ii. 1.7 = log2x x = 21.7 x = 3.249 iii. -2.8 = log9x x = 9-2.8 x = 0.00213 iv. x = log91 x=0 v. x = logb1 x=0 vi. 3x = 7 x.log103 = log107 log107 x= log103 0.8451 x= 0.4771 x = 1.771

vii.

2 = logx9 x2 = 9 x=3 5

viii.

z = logb1 + logb(x/y) + logb(x.y) + logb(xy) z = 0 + logb(x) - logb(y) + logb(x) + logb(y) + y.logb(x) z = 2.logb(x) + y.logb(x) z = (2 + y)logb(x) z = logb(x) (2 + y) x = b(z / (2+y))

Using logs with a calculator

Most calculators only have logs to the base 10 and e. To overcome this problem the following relationship is used. logyx logbx = logyb

Example
Calculate log255 log1055 log255 = log102 1.74036 log255 = 0.30103 log255 = 5.78136

Example
Calculate log430 log1030 log455 = log104 1.47712 log455 = 0.60205 log455 = 2.4534

Radians

An angle of one radian is formed when the length of the arc on the circumference of a circle is equal to the radius of the circle. i.e.

= 1 rad
The constant is defined as the ratio of the diameter of a circle to its circumference. i.e. c = 3.141592654 d where c is the circle's circumference and d is the circle's diameter. The circumference of the circle can be defined as c = 2r Where r is the radius of the circle and c is the circumference There are therefore 2. radius lengths in circumference of the circle. i.e c = 2. = 6.283185307 r It therefore follows that there are 2. radians in a circle. i.e.

Converting between radians and degrees

Consider the following two identical angles. The angle (d) in the left circle is measured in degrees, while the angle (r) in the right circle is measured in radians.

It must hold that the ratio of d to the complete circle is the same as the ratio of r to the complete circle. i.e

d
= 360

r
2

Example
Convert 32o to radians. 32 x 2

r =
360 8

r = 0.5585 rad Example

Convert 2.12 radians to degrees. 2.12 x 360

d = d =
2 121.5o

Sinusoids

The term sinusoidal is used for waveforms defined by f(t) = A.sin(.t + ) where A is the Amplitude, is the angular velocity, t is the independent time variable, is the phase angle.

Exercises

1. Indices Simplify i. ii. iii. iv. v. a5.a4 (a2.4)1.82 4m4.1 x 2.3m8.4 a-2.a4

15c4 3c5 vi. vii. (3a3)2

(3y2)4 9y2 9

viii. ix. x.

n3 x n-1 x n-2 (a4) 3 (27b6)

2. Scientific Notation Represent the following numbers in scientific notation i. 0.000000000006789 ii. 0.1 iii. 4 iv. 7800000000000000 v. 30.2000000000 vi. 0.006734 vii. 8000 viii. 0.00000356 ix. 120100000000 x. 2000.34 3. Engineering Notation Represent the following numbers in Engineering Notation i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. 0.1 8.67x103 0.707x102 1.141x10-7 0.000000000006789 4

1 6.78x105 ix. 1 50x10-4 x. 7800000000000000 xi. 30.2000000000 4. Logarithms i. Evaluate. a. log10 100 b. log10 1000 c. log10 1000000

10

For each of the expressions below, write the equivalent in logarithmic form. a. 23 = 8 b. 54 = 625 c. 30 = 1 d. 361/2 = 6 e. 5-3 = 0.0008 f. 25-1/2 = 0.2 iii. For each of the expressions below, write the equivalent in index form. a. log264 = 6 b. log31 = 0 c. log55 = 1 d. log464 = 3 iv. Simplify. a. log104 + log10 2 b. log1010 - log102 c. 2.log103 d. 0.5 log1016 e. log103 + 2.log107 f. 3.log104 + 2log105 - log1020 v. Solve for x a. logx9 = 2 b. log28 = x c. 4x = 5 d. 0.25x = 9 5. Radians i. Convert the following angles to Radians a. 50o b. 360o c. 120o d. 6790o e. 180o ii. Convert the following angles to degrees a. 5 Rad b. /2 Rad c. 3. Rad d. 42 Rad e. 73.89 Rad

ii.

11

PART 2(a) Differentiation

An Introduction To Differentiation

Reference: MathsDirect

Differentiation is the maths of changing variables. In science, what is really important, is not what value something has at the moment, but what value it will have. This is where differentiation comes in. By differentiating a variable, we find the rate at which it is changing. To begin with, we consider the gradients of curves, but soon move on, to apply differentiation to quantities changing with time.

The Gradient Of A Curve

For a straight line, we defined the gradient as

This gradient was constant

If our graph is curved however, then the gradient will constantly be changing. The curves on the right are the same, but you can see that their gradients at the two points are very different.

We define the gradient of a curve at a point, as being the gradient of the tangent to
12

the curve at that point. Clearly, this will change, depending on where you are on the curve. In other words, the gradient will be a function of x. If the curve has an equation connecting y & x then the gradient is written

There is a special notation for differentiation

The most common type of expression that you will be asked to differentiate, is of the form e.g. There is a very simple rule, that works for any variation of this

=>

where a & n are constants

i.e. You multiply by the power and then reduce the power by one Below are some very simple examples =>

=>

=>

There are 2 special cases for this rule: If the power of x is 1, then you are just left with the number in front of it. e.g. =>

=>

13

If you have a number, on it's own, this vanishes when you differentiate e.g. =>

=>

The power of x does not have to be positive integer =>

=>

It is important that before you apply the differentiation formula, you make sure that your expression is written in the form: You may need to re-arrange your expression, before you differentiate. e.g. Differentiate First re-arrange Then differentiate

Differentiate Re-arrange

=>

14

Below are a few more examples of this basic formula

Differentiate

=>

Differentiate

=>

Differentiate

=>

15

If you differentiate you get Notice that the power of e does not change after differentiation. You simply multiply by the number in front of the x

Examples Differentiate =>

Differentiate

=>

Differentiate

=>

Stationary points:
There are three types of gradient a
16

curve can have

In this case the curve is increasing

Alternatively the curve could be decreasing

However, the most interesting case is. At this point the curve is stationary stationary. This allows you to find the maximum or minimum value of a function, since these always occur where the gradient is 0 Stationary points can come in 3 varieties

17

A Minimum

A Maximum

A Point of Inflection

Below are examples of finding the 3 types of stationary points. To find the stationary points, differentiate and say that the result must equal 0. Solve this equation, to find the value of x at which the stationary point occurs. Put this value of x into y.
18

Therefore, the curve has a stationary point at To find the nature of the stationary point, you look at the gradient on either side of the point.

Gradient at x = -2

Gradient at x = 0

So the gradient is negative to the left of the point and positive to the right. This can be represented by a sketch

The point is a minimum.

Differentiate and say that the result is 0. Solve the equation to find x. Put this value into y. So the stationary point is at To find the nature of the point, look at the gradient on either side of the point

The gradient is positive to the left and negative to the right

The point is a maximum

19

Differentiate and say that the result is 0 Solve to find x and the corresponding y. Look at the gradient on either side of the point.

The gradient is positive on both sides of the point

This is a point of inflection.

Note that a point of inflection could be negative on both sides of the point.

The Chain Rule

The function on the right could be considered a composite function where
20

In differentiation we call this "a function of a function." The function y could be written To differentiate such a function, w.r.t. x, we use the chain rule rule. For example, to differentiate the case above. we say where We now differentiate the two expressions separately. Now combine these, using the formula

where u is a function of x.

the du cancel out.

For this example, we can easily check that this is correct. We can just expand the brackets and differentiate as normal. So the two methods agree.

21

PRODUCT RULE
To differentiate a function in the form You should use the formula

Example Differentiate First define u & v Now differentiate u & v separately Now combine your results Simplify

Result

=>

Quotient rule

To differentiate a function in the form You should use the formula

Example Differentiate First define u & v Now differentiate u & v separately

22

Now combine your results Simplify

Result

=>

IMPLICIT FUNCTION
So far we have differentiated functions in the form

so that y is expressed as a function of x. This is called explicit differentiation. We now want to look at differentiating expressions such as

where y is not given explicitly. This is called implicit differentiation. differentiation. To differentiate the above equation, w.r.t. x, you just differentiate each term separately. This is straightforward for the x2 term and the 4, but how do you differentiate y2 w.r.t x? In fact you use the chain rule. We can say that

Then applying the chain rule

we get and we can work out that so we have

We can now differentiate our original equation

23

We could in this case, have re-arranged to make y the subject, then differentiated, but this would have been much more complicated, and in any case, there will be occasions when it is not possible to make y the subject. Let's consider a second example- Differentiate, w.r.t. x

Using the chain rule

so

The general rule for differentiating a y term w.r.t. x is, Diff the term w.r.t. y and dy/dx. multiply by dy/dx

24

Parametric differentiation
It is not always easy to write equations in the form

It is sometimes easier to write the relationship between x & y in terms of a third variable, called a parameter. This parameter is usually represented by the letter t. For example So , when t = 3 ; ;

To find the gradient of a curve given parametrically, you have two options. 1 Rewrite the equation in cartesian form. 2 Differentiate parametrically, using the chain rule. The problem with the first method is that equations are generally given parametrically, specifically because they are hard to write in a cartesian form. The example above, however is easy to convert, as an example. Make t the subject of the x equation. Substitute into the y equation Differentiate as usual In general, however, you should not use this method. Parametric Differentiation To differentiate equations given parametrically, you should use the chain rule,

That is, you differentiate y and x separately, with respect to the parameter t. This can be rewritten

In the example above

25

This is the same answer that we got before. Another example Find the gradient of the curve described by the parametric equations This is an ellipse In this case it would be difficult to write in a cartesian form. Differentiating separately gives.

Combining these gives

On the next page there is an example of finding the equation of a tangent to a curve given parametrically.

Trigonometric functions
This, and the derivatives of the other main trig functions are standard and may be quoted. You will find them in the formula book, but you should try to learn them, as this will make solving problems much easier. The main derivatives are given below.

26

The chain rule can be applied to all the trigonometric functions. Two examples are given below.

Define u

Differentiate u and y separately.

Combine the results and remove u. Remember that this means all cubed. Define u.

Differentiate u and y separately.

Combine the results and remove the u.

This is clearly a tedious procedure. The main results from using the chain rule on trig functions are standard and can therefore be quoted. The main results are given below.

27

PART 2(a) Integration

What Is Integration?

Reference MathsDirect

Suppose you were told that a function had a gradient given by Could you work out that function? By referring back to differentiation, you would notice that this gradient was given by the function

Is this then our function? Not necessarily! We would get the same gradient for the function

28

This process of finding the function from it's gradient, is called Integration Integration. This is only the most basic use of integration. Together with differentiation, it is probably the most important area of maths. The basic method of integration, is to reverse differentiation. To differentiate, we multiplied by the power, then subtracted 1 from the power To integrate, we reverse this exactly. First add 1 to the power, then divide by the new power. =>

=>

Notice that there is a constant added onto the function. This is because, as in the case above, we do not know whether or not a number must be added to our function. Example Find the curve whose gradient is Add 1 the power an divide by new power.
29

Simplify

Important If you leave off the c, your answer is wrong and you will lose a mark

Clearly it is not very satisfactory to have these unknowns in our answers. If we are told a point that the graph passes through, then we can evaluate the constant. For example A curve has a gradient function and passes through the point Find the equation of the curve Add 1 to the power and divide by new power. Simplify Substitute in So the curve is

THE NOTATION OF INTEGRATION

Although integration has been introduced as the reverse of differentiation, it is an important mathematical operation in it's own right. As such, it has it's own special notation. The symbol for "integrate" is So to integrate x, you write It is essential that you include the dx, as this tells you which variable you want to integrate. The solution to the above problem then would be

This reads, "integrate x with respect to x."

30

If the expression that you are integrating contains more than one term, then you must bracket the terms, with the dx outside the brackets. e.g.

Another example

As with differentiation, it is important that all terms are in the correct form, before you integrate. This may involve some rearranging.

DEFINITE INTEGRAL
Imagine a curve, whose gradient is given by To find the difference in y, between x=1 and x=4, you would first need to integrate When x=1 and when x=4 The change in y is, therefore When you find the difference between an integral at 2 values of
31

Notice that the unknown constant has vanished.

x, you can ignore the constant and are left with a number. This is called Definite Integration. Integration If you are going to evaluate a definite integral, you need to specify limits. That is, you need to give 2 values of x to integrate between. You give these limits, by writing the values at the top and bottom of the integral sign. The example above is written: The result of the integration is written in square brackets, with the limits to the right. You then substitute the limits into the integral, the top limit first. Write the 2 parts in curly brackets, to keep the separate. Once you have worked these out, subtract the second bracket from the first.

If you study the following examples, the process should become clear.

Integrate 2x+3, between 0 and 5.

The terms are first written in the form

Evaluate the following definite integral.

ln1=0 ln 4 = ln 22 = 2 ln 2

32

Evaluate the following definite integral

Some Standard Integrals

Treating Integration as the reverse of differentiation, leads to some standard results. These results can all be quoted without any proof or derivation.

Below are some simple

33

examples of these standard integrals. Example 1

Example 2

Example 3

Example 4

Example 5

Example 6

Integration Using Identities

Sometimes before integrating an expression, you need to re-arrange it. There are two main types of question like this. Trigonometric expressions. Partial Fractions. You will often need to use trigonometric identities before integrating. For example
34

For this example, you first need the identity. This is now a standard integral So the solution is.

A second example First expand the brackets. Use an identity.

The integral of sec2x can be quoted.

The integral is therefore.

To integrate some quotients, you need to split the expressions into partial fractions. For example which can be written as Each part can be integrated separately.

Therefore the integral is

A second example

35

Split the expression into partial fractions. Cross multiply. Collect terms. Equate the numerators. Form simultaneous equations and solve to find A and B. Therefore the partial fractions are. The integral can therefore be written So the answer is.

Integration By Substitution
How do you integrate Notice that one part is the derivative of the other part. If we make a substitution, then, which re-arranges to The integral then becomes. which can be integrated, w.r.t. u, and then substitute back the xs. This method of substitution can be
36

used for any integral where one part is the derivative of the other. The two main forms are and

For these cases you substitute as follows

Below are some examples Integrate Use the substitution, which gives.

The integral then becomes. Integrate w.r.t. u Substitute back the xs.

Integrate Use the substitution, which gives. So the integral becomes, Integrate, and substitute back the xs.

Integrate

37

Use the substitution, which gives So the integral becomes. Integrate, and replace the xs.

38

Integration By Parts
How do you integrate a product? We saw that if one of the terms was the derivative of the other, i.e. then we could use a substitution If this is not the case, however, you must use a method called parts. Integration by parts This can be derived from the product rule in differentiation. Differentiate w.r.t. x. Now integrate w.r.t. x The left hand side just returns to y, which we can write as uv. If we now re-arrange, we get. This is the formula for integration by parts. Note that one of the terms of the product is taken to be a derivative. To see how this works in practice, look at the example below. Integrate First you must decide which term is the derivative and which term you are going to differentiate. In general, differentiate the x term.
39

For the formula, you will need to integrate/differentiate the terms separately. Now just substitute the above terms into the formula. You get another integral, but this time it is simple. Integrate it to get the final answer. It may not always be so straight-forward For example, integrate

Decide which terms to integrate/differentiate

Substitute the terms into the formula

We have been left with another product to integrate. The power of x has, however, reduced by 1, and one more integration by parts will remove it.

You now need to integrate For the second integration, again decide which terms to integrate/differentiate. You must differentiate the same term as before, otherwise you will just return to where you started. This time we get a simple integral.

Put the above results into the formula.

40

Now put this result into the original integral. to get the final answer One example of integration by parts throws up a particular difficulty. Integrate. In this case there is no obvious choice of which term to differentiate/integrate. In fact, it does not matter which way you do it. Using the above choices gives We do not appear to have gotten anywhere. You must differentiate/integrate the same terms as before.

You now need to persevere, and perform the second integration by parts. Again this does not appear to have helped. However, if we combine the two results, we get Removing the brackets, we see that we have the same integral on both sides. Re-arrange, to get All that remains is to divide to reach the final answer.

41