ontrol ror of location & clamping, error of sub-setting achined part G curacy of dimensions,Cooling operationB B shape,newBC G Work withSecondB

BGjig G Design Design B ab B Heating datum Setting micro-geometry etc. Check operation interruptions First B of G warf/debris pe, sizes, temperature onomics effect rt price, productability nergy ain, miscellaneous utting tool ometry, rigidity, wear, temperature xpenses

preciation, materials, energy etc. Sustainable Design utgoing parameters

and Manufacturing

controllable measurable incoming factors ntrollable incoming factors

andom factors

rocess of machining Atanas Ivanov Dr

Foreword The world is changing rapidly, with a trend towards globalisation, international supply chains and widely dispersed design and manufacturing teams. Engineering products and the processes by which they are created are becoming increasingly complex. It is essential that engineers address the whole life cycle of the systems and products they create to ensure they meet the long-term needs of society. At the same time they must use natural resources wisely and produce the minimum impact on the environment.
1. Introduction Sustainability is the capacity to endure. In ecology the word describes how biological systems remain diverse and productive over time. For humans it is the potential for longterm maintenance of well being, which in turn depends on the maintenance of the natural world and natural resources. Sustainability has become a wide-ranging term that can be applied to almost every facet of life on Earth, from local to a global scale and over various time periods. Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of sustainable biological systems. Invisible chemical cycles redistribute water, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon through the world's living and non-living systems, and have sustained life since the beginning of time. As the earths human population has increased, natural ecosystems have declined and changes in the balance of natural cycles have had a negative impact on both humans and other living systems. Paul Hawken has written that "Sustainability is about stabilizing the currently disruptive relationship between earths two most complex systemshuman culture and the living world.

1.1 Definition Definitions of sustainability often refer to the "three pillars" of social, environmental and economic sustainability.

A representation of sustainability showing how both economy and society are constrained by environmental limits.

The word sustainability is derived from the Latin sustinere (tenere, to hold; sus, up). Dictionaries provide more than ten meanings for sustain, the main ones being to maintain", "support", or "endure. However, since the 1980s sustainability has been used more in the sense of human sustainability on planet Earth and this has resulted in the most widely quoted definition of sustainability and sustainable development, that of the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations on March 20, 1987: sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. At the 2005 World Summit it was noted that this requires the reconciliation of environmental, social and economic demands the "three pillars" of sustainability. This view has been expressed as an illustration using three overlapping ellipses indicating that the three pillars of sustainability are not mutually exclusive and can be mutually reinforcing. The UN definition is not universally accepted and has undergone various interpretations. What sustainability is, what its goals should be, and how these goals are to be achieved is all open to interpretation. For many environmentalists the idea of sustainable development is an oxymoron as development seems to entail environmental degradation. Ecological economist Herman Daly has asked, "what use is a sawmill without a forest?" From this perspective, the economy is a subsystem of human society, which is itself a subsystem of the biosphere, and a gain in one sector is a loss from another. This can be illustrated as three concentric circles. A universally accepted definition of sustainability is elusive because it is expected to achieve many things. On the one hand it needs to be factual and scientific, a clear statement of a specific destination. The simple definition "sustainability is improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems", though vague, conveys the idea of sustainability having quantifiable limits. But sustainability is also a call to action, a task in progress or journey and therefore a political process, so some definitions set out common goals and values. The Earth Charter speaks of a sustainable global society founded on respect for nature, universal human rights, economic justice, and a culture of peace.

To add complication the word sustainability is applied not only to human sustainability on Earth, but too many situations and contexts over many scales of space and time, from small local ones to the global balance of production and consumption. It can also refer to a future intention: "sustainable agriculture" is not necessarily a current situation but a goal for the future, a prediction. For all these reasons sustainability is perceived, at one extreme, as nothing more than a feelgood buzzword with little meaning or substance but, at the other, as an important but unfocused concept like "liberty" or "justice". It has also been described as a "dialogue of values that defies consensual definition". 1.2 Principles and concepts
The philosophical and analytic framework of sustainability draws on and connects with many different disciplines and fields; in recent years an area that has come to be called sustainability science has emerged. Sustainability science is not yet an autonomous field or discipline of its own, and has tended to be problem-driven and oriented towards guiding decision-making.

1.3 Scale and context

Sustainability is studied and managed over many scales (levels or frames of reference) of time and space and in many contexts of environmental, social and economic organization. The focus ranges from the total carrying capacity (sustainability) of planet Earth to the sustainability of economic sectors, ecosystems, countries, municipalities, neighbourhoods, home gardens, individual lives, individual goods and services, occupations, lifestyles, behaviour patterns and so on. In short, it can entail the full compass of biological and human activity or any part of it. As Daniel Botkin, author and environmentalist, has stated: "We see a landscape that is always in flux, changing over many scales of time and space."

1.4 Consumption population, technology, resources

The overall driver of human impact on Earth systems is the destruction of biophysical resources, and especially, the Earth's ecosystems. The total environmental impact of a community or of humankind as a whole depends both on population and impact per person, which in turn depends in complex ways on what resources are being used, whether or not those resources are renewable, and the scale of the human activity relative to the carrying capacity of the ecosystems involved. Historically, humanity has responded to a demand for more resources by trying to increase supply. As supplies inevitably become depleted sustainable practices are encouraged through demand management for all goods and services by promoting reduced consumption, using renewable resources where possible, and encouraging 5

practices that minimise resource intensity while maximising resource productivity. Careful resource management can be applied at many scales, from economic sectors like agriculture, manufacturing and industry, to work organisations, the consumption patterns of households and individuals and to the resource demands of individual goods and services. One of the initial attempts to express human impact mathematically was developed in the 70's and is called the I PAT formula. This formulation attempts to explain human consumption in terms of three components: population numbers, levels of consumption (which it terms "affluence", although the usage is different), and impact per unit of resource use (which is termed "technology", because this impact depends on the technology used). The equation is expressed:

I=PAT Where: I = Environmental impact, P = Population, A = Affluence, T = Technology 1.5 Measuring Sustainability
By establishing quantitative measures for sustainability it becomes possible to set goals, apply management strategies, and measure progress. The Natural Step (TNS) framework developed by Karl-Henrik Robrt examines sustainability and resource use from its thermodynamic foundations to determine how humans use and apportion natural capital in a way that is sustainable and just. The TNS framework's system conditions of sustainability provide a means for the scientifically based measurement of sustainability. Natural capital includes resources from the earth's crust (i.e., minerals, oil), those produced by humans (synthetic substances), and those of the biosphere. Equitable access to natural capital is also a component of sustainability. The energy generated in use of resourcesreferred to as energycan be measured as the embodied energy of a product or service over its life cycle. Its analysis, using methods such as Life Cycle Analysis or Ecological Footprint analysis provide basic indicators of sustainability on various scales. There are now a vast number of sustainability indicators, metrics, benchmarks, indices, reporting procedures, audits and more. They include environmental, social and economic measures separately or together over many scales and contexts. Environmental factors are integrated with economics through ecological economics, resource economics and thermoeconomics, and social factors through metrics like the Happy Planet Index which measures the well-being of people in the nations of the world while taking into account their environmental impact. Some of the best known and most widely used sustainability 6

measures include corporate sustainability reporting, Triple Bottom Line accounting, and estimates of the quality of sustainability governance for individual countries using the Environmental Sustainability Index and Environmental Performance Index. At the global level, and from the equation I = PAT, it is clear that measuring sustainability requires a knowledge of the world's expected population. We also need estimates of how many people the Earth can support. This is a tall order but for many years now scientists have been refining models of the carrying capacity of planet Earth by measuring key human impacts, especially those that relate to biodiversity.

2. Design and Manufacturing The relationship between design and production is one of planning and executing. In theory, the plan should anticipate and compensate for potential problems in the execution process. Design involves problem-solving and creativity. In contrast, production involves a routine or pre-planned process. A design may also be a mere plan that does not include a production or engineering process, although a working knowledge of such processes is usually expected of designers. In some cases, it may be unnecessary and/or impractical to expect a designer with a broad multidisciplinary knowledge required for such designs to also have a detailed specialized knowledge of how to produce the product. Design and production are intertwined in many creative professional careers, meaning problem-solving is part of execution and the reverse. As the cost of rearrangement increases, the need for separating design from production increases as well. For example, a high-budget project, such as a skyscraper, requires separating (design) architecture from (production) construction. A Low-budget project, such as a locally printed office party invitation flyer, can be rearranged and printed dozens of times at the low cost of a few sheets of paper, a few drops of ink, and less than one hour's pay of a desktop publisher. This is not to say that production never involves problem-solving or creativity, nor that design always involves creativity. Designs are rarely perfect and are sometimes repetitive. The imperfection of a design may task a production position (e.g. production artist, construction worker) with utilizing creativity or problem-solving skills to compensate for what was overlooked in the design process. Likewise, a design may be a simple repetition (copy) of a known pre-existing solution, requiring minimal, if any, creativity or problem-solving skills from the designer.

2.1 Sustainability in Product Design What does it mean to have a sustainable design? First what is to design something? No generally-accepted definition of design exists, and the term has different connotations in different fields (see design disciplines below). Informally, a design (noun) refers to a plan for the construction of an object (as in architectural blueprints, circuit diagrams and sewing patterns) and to design (verb) refers to making this plan. However, one can also design by directly constructing an object Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or professional, alone or in teams, produce designs. Dorst and Dijkhuis argued that there are many ways of describing design processes and discussed two basic and fundamentally different ways, both of which have several names. The prevailing view has been called The Rational Model, Technical Problem Solving and The Reason-Centric Perspective. The alternative view has been called Reflection-in-Action, co-evolution and The Action-Centric Perspective. 2.2 Design and engineering
Engineering is often viewed as a more rigorous form of design. Contrary views suggest that design is a component of engineering aside from production and other operations which utilize engineering. A neutral view may suggest that design and engineering simply overlap, depending on the discipline of design. The American Heritage Dictionary defines design as: "To conceive or fashion in the mind; invent," and "To formulate a plan", and defines engineering as: "The application of scientific and mathematical principles to practical ends such as the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient and economical structures, machines, processes, and systems.". Both are forms of problem-solving with a defined distinction being the application of "scientific and mathematical principles". How much science is applied in a design is a question of what is considered "science". Along with the question of what is considered science, there is social science versus natural science. Scientists at Xerox PARC made the distinction of design versus engineering at "moving minds" versus "moving atoms".

2.3 Process design

"Process design" (in contrast to "design process" mentioned above) refers to the planning of routine steps of a process aside from the expected result. Processes (in general) are treated as a product of design, not the method of design. The term originated with the industrial designing of chemical processes. With the increasing complexities of the information age, consultants and executives have found the term useful to describe the design of business processes as well as manufacturing processes.

2.4 Importance of engineering design The decisions made by engineers have a widespread and long-lasting effect on the quality of life and on the quality of the environment. The results of the work they do
10

can improve life and living conditions in many ways and give people the opportunity to develop fuller roles in society and to shape its future direction. Decisions of such importance should be based upon the accumulated and carefully considered experience of generations of engineers. Those making such decisions need to have a deep understanding of the natural laws and the societal context of their work, and to base their judgements upon this understanding. Because of the wide impact of many of their decisions, engineers need integrity, independence, impartiality, responsibility and competence, and, frequently, discretion. They are trusted by society to make wise and fruitful decisions, occasionally on a global scale, acknowledging cultural differences and limitations of resources human and material. Global economic developments are changing the industrial world rapidly and involve increasingly challenging international and cross-cultural needs, along with ever tighter regulations. Products are often designed by multi-disciplinary teams that are no longer co-located, placing great reliance on sophisticated IT systems. Products, and the processes by which they are created, are getting ever more complex. In order to achieve shorter lead times, several of the traditional product creation processes now have to be undertaken in parallel, an approach referred to as Concurrent Engineering. New technologies such as biotechnology, nanotechnology and photonics are having an increasing impact, as are the many new materials and production processes. With companies moving from simply providing products to providing total service packages, the importance of whole life modelling, right through to the decommissioning, recycling and disposal of products, is constantly increasing. It is clearly impossible to include all such developments in undergraduate engineering courses, so the emphasis must be on providing students with a solid grounding in engineering fundamentals and their context, and preparing them to work adaptably and across disciplines throughout their lives. 2.5 Nature of engineering design Design can be described briefly as: (1) identifying the needs a new project has to address; (2) having the vision to conceive solutions to those needs; and (3) delivering the solutions (Armstrong, 2002). The design process begins with the identification of a new idea, a specific market need or a new technology. The design team then has the challenge of conceiving a solution to that need, which may fall into one or more of the following categories:
11

 Major one-off project, e.g. hydro-electric scheme, large bridge, shopping complex Consumer product, e.g. kitchen kettle, motor vehicle, personal computer Process, e.g. chemical plant, traffic management, food distribution, or System, e.g. computer software, telecommunications system, mail delivery. 2.6 Educating Engineers in Design It is critical to identify and formulate needs accurately. The perceived wants of clients and customers are not always what they need in reality. Part of the professional skill of engineers is the ability to recognise these differing requirements, and to reconcile them. After formulating the needs, the significant creative process of design begins. This involves meeting the requirements of fitness for purpose, safety, quality, value for money, aesthetics, constructability, ease of use, efficiency of production etc. It is vital throughout the design process, and the subsequent delivery of solutions, to respect the quality of life in an emerging global society and to give high priority to reducing environmental impact and increasing sustainability. 2.7 What is Engineering Design? Engineering design is the process of converting an idea or market need into the detailed information from which a product or system can be made to satisfy all the requirements safely, economically and reliably. In order to explain the design process effectively, it is helpful to have an overall framework. Design methods and guidelines can then be described within the context of this framework, and their application in practice demonstrated through projects. A starting point is provided by James Armstrong in his booklet Design Principles The Engineers Contribution to Society (Armstrong, 2002). Armstrongs high-level model of product development encompasses three key stages of realisation: Need all design begins with a clearly defined need Vision all designs arise from a creative response to that need Delivery all designs result in a system or product that meets that need. The need might arise from a good idea, a new technological development or a carefully researched market requirement. In order to turn this proposal into a concrete system or product, a design team with vision must be established to undertake the complex sequence of activities necessary to define what is to be
12

produced. If delivery of the system or product is to be timely and cost effective, then the design team must be provided with adequate resources, including finance, facilities, tools and information. A slightly more detailed model of product development is shown in the figure below. After a need has been defined, the creative activity of design is supported by inputs from other key functions such as production, marketing, research, development, quality assurance, sales and customer service. Progress depends on making decisions. During the design stage the aim is to ensure that the proposed product will be economical to produce, that it will operate to specification safely, reliably and economically, and that it will be possible to recycle it at the end of its useful life. Where recycling is not possible, careful consideration should be given to safe decommissioning and environmentally benign disposal. Decisions depend on the accuracy of forecasts, ranging from broad customer requirements to detailed engineering stresses in a component. The design team as many solutions as possible and analyses them to predict how these solutions will perform if realised. Forecasts, and the decisions based on them, often turn out to be in error and corrective actions have to be taken. Simple models, such as that shown in Figure 37, mask the complex iterative nature of the product development process. The stages often merge and because of errors and unknowns many steps have to be returned to and repeated. For complex products, extensive development programmes involving costly prototype testing are necessary before they can be released for production. Large quantities of information, obtained from repositories and specialists in many different fields, must be handled during the design process. Since large, widely dispersed design teams are often required, communication becomes a major issue. Continual feedback from all stages of the process provides essential information for improving the system or product.

13

Design problems are often described as being open-ended. By this it is meant that they do not have correct solutions, though some solutions will clearly be better than others. Several solutions must be developed before the best can be selected through evaluation against the criteria. This is an iterative process involving many feedback loops during which information is updated to improve both the criteria and the solutions. A general strategy for tackling complex problems is to break them down into smaller, more manageable sub-problems and to tackle each sub-problem in turn. In line with this strategy, the design process can be split into a number of main phases and each phase then broken down into a number of steps. Details of the phases and steps, which often have to be undertaken concurrently, along with appropriate methods and guidelines to tackle each step, can be found in standard texts on engineering design (Pahl & Beitz, 1998; French, 1999).

14

The model of the design process can give the impression that each phase of the design process is completed before the next one is started. This is seldom so. The phases merge and are frequently repeated. The detail design of long-lead time items will have to be undertaken and the sourcing of materials and production started before the design of other, less critical, items has been completed. In the past designs tended to be passed to the production department without careful consideration having been given to process planning and the procurement of materials and bought-in items. Also, at times, little attention was given to how easily a product could be maintained in service and then disposed of and recycled at the end of its useful life. It is therefore vital to emphasise the importance of starting to plan for production, materials procurement, maintenance and disposal early in the design process. Although a systematic approach to design is advocated, it is important to emphasise that such an approach must be applied flexibly and adapted to suit the particular project being undertaken. It is not intended to replace intuition, inventiveness or insight, but rather to support and enhance these qualities by disciplining thinking and helping to focus on important aspects of the problem. It is important to recognise that because of the time constraints on their studies, and consequently the limited time they spend on engineering design, students can still fail to appreciate two important characteristics of new product creation even if this framework is used. The first characteristic is that in order to deal with the complexity of many products, they evolve incrementally. Experienced designers have a large repertoire of past design solutions to draw upon and have a wide knowledge of and feel for standard parts, material properties, and production and assembly processes. Undergraduates do not have this repertoire. The second characteristic is that attention to detail is critical. What distinguishes a safe and reliable product is often not its conceptual design but its detail design. Undergraduates often consider the detail design phase to be less important than the others. It should be pointed out that many excellent concepts fail in the market though lack of attention to detail. Because of time constraints in undergraduate courses, it is seldom possible to undertake the full detail design of a product of significant complexity.
15

2.8 The four phases of the design process can be summarised as: Clarification of the Task The starting point for the design process is an idea or a market need, often stated in vague, and sometimes contradictory, terms. Before the subsequent design phases start, it is important to clarify the task by identifying the true requirements and constraints. The result of this phase is a design specification (design brief or requirements list), which is a key working document that should be continually reviewed and updated as the design develops. Conceptual Design In this phase, concepts with the potential of fulfilling the requirements listed in the design specification must be generated. The overall functional and physical relationships must be considered and combined with preliminary embodiment features. The result of this phase is a concept model (drawing). Embodiment Design In this phase, the foundations are laid for detail design through a structured development of the concept. In the case of a mechanical product, the result of this phase would be a detailed layout model (drawing) showing the preliminary shapes and arrangement of all the components, along with their materials (Ashby, 2005). Detail Design Finally, the precise shape, dimensions and tolerances of every component have to be specified, and the material selections confirmed. There is a close interrelationship between the shape of a component, its material and the proposed method of its manufacture. The result of this phase is a set of detailed manufacturing instructions.

16

2.9 Design Engineering and Sustainability

The aim of education in Design Engineering is to simply formalize the approach and in doing so, identify new methods and research opportunities similar to the way it occurs in other fields of engineering.

Design Engineering focuses on defining customer needs and required functionality early in the development cycle, documenting requirements, then proceeding with design synthesis and system validation while considering the sustainability issue.

2.10 The Idea!

Design can be described briefly as: (1) identifying the needs a new project has to address; (2) having the vision to conceive solutions to those needs; and (3) delivering the solutions (Armstrong, 2002).

BUT: Every design always ends with drawings on which there is information about

only

two things:
Materials & Dimensions So every design can be regarded as a binary translation of the complexity of the designed product or system

17

18

2.11 Materials and dimensions

Materials - are selected based on Engineering Analysis methods and nominal of dimensions are determined to satisfy the strength and rigidity requirements of the system

Dimensions are represented by: - Nominal -Deviation (Tolerance) -Position of the deviation (position of the Tolerance) (- Distribution function)!!!

19

2.12 Quantifying the quality:

20

3. Quality Chains

Quality chains theory has no alternative at present for determining in a scientific manner the needed accuracy and guarantee the workability, therefore the sustainability, of the engineering designs and manufacturing settings from the first attempt (iteration).
1. Basic definitions:

Quality chain - Sequence of dimensions in a closed loop (each part contributes with only one dimension) expressing the dependence of a specific functional criteria (closing element of the chain; distance, clearance, interference etc.) This definition determines two conditions for assistance of a Quality Chain (QC). 1 It is a closed loop contour; 2 in the contour are included only dimensions whose change, brings a change to the element of the QC for which the QC is created and called the closing element or accumulator.

In the schematics of the QC the closing elements are marked with a capitol letter and index , (e.g. A , B , ). The rest of the elements of the QC are marked with the capital letter and index i, which denotes the number of the element.

Elements of the QC can be linear, marked with capital letter and index showing their number in the particular QC (A1, B5, D3) and angular, marked with Greek letters 1, 4 etc, but not using , , and .

The elements of the QC can be: -Increasing When this element increases the closing element of the QC (the accumulator) also increases. It is marked with right pointing arrow on the top of the letter denoting the element;

Obj100

-Decreasing- When the element increases the closing element

of the QC (the accumulator) decreases. It is marked with left pointing arrow on the top of the letter denoting the element;
21

-Compensator- This is a selected in advance element of the QC whose change guarantees the desired accuracy. It is marked with letter and index c (Bc, Dc, etc);

-Common is an element which belongs to two or more QCs at the same time.
There are two stages of Quality Chain analysis. a) Creation of the QC with graphic representation on the assembly drawing, process planning drawing; b) Calculating the needed elements using numerical values.

Some examples of QC and methods of determining the type of the structural element whether increasing or decreasing:

2. Graphical representation of the QC elements 22

Linear dimensions with fairly big nominal are represented with a line and two arrows;

Dimensions which are very small like clearance, interference are graphically represented by rotating the axes of those surfaces and marking for which surface the axes line belong to and then giving the dimension.

-Angular dimensions are marked as shown below

Quality Chains can be independent or connected when two or more chains are dependent on each other.

Parallel linked chains. (At least one common element should be present). In the example below there are 2 common elements. In this case first have to be calculated the chain requiring higher accuracy!

23

Serially linked QC. These are Chains which have common datum.

These chains do not influence each other but they only show the sequence of the assembly. There is also third type of linked QCs where they share elements and common datum. They are called combined linked chains. 3.3 Types of Quality Chains
1. Depending on the position in the space they can be 2D and 3D. 2D chains

can be with parallel elements or non parallel elements.

24

2. According to the application QC can be: Design QCs, Manufacturing QCs

and Metrology QCs

3. Parts design QCs In this case the closing element of such QCs are the

missing from the drawing dimensions. In the fig. below the dimensions from A1 to A5 are sufficient linear dimensions for the shaft to be fully determined. The number of these dimensions should be equal to the number of the face surfaces minus one. All the rest of the dimensions shown on the figure below are closing elements of some QCs, e.g. A is resultant from A3, A4 and A5. This dimension can be given on the drawing in brackets meaning for reference. It is important not to over-dimension the parts.
4. Assembly QCs help to analyse the quality links in the whole assembly. On

the figure below the quality requirement for mismatch of the axes of the head and tailstock of a lathe is denoted as B . The element B3 comes as a result from the assembly of the headstock where it was the closing element of another assembly QC, and B1 comes as a result of the assembly of the tailstock. Therefore, the QCs are linked with the sequence of creating of the new design and the elements may change their role during this process.

5. Manufacturing QCs are used to guarantee the accuracy during the

manufacturing operations. On the fig below is shown automated lathe. The dimension B is achieved by automatic switch off of the feed rate. As it can be seen from the figure in the QC take part elements from the machine tool, jigs and the tools.

25

6. Metrology QCs helps to analyse the accuracy with which the parts will be

measured. On the fig below the measured dimension G is the closing element of a QC as the micrometer reading will depend on the dimensions Gi.

3.4 Rules for creating Quality Chains:

1. Preliminary condition is availability of a drawing (part, assembly, process

planning etc.)
2. Defining the functional parameters (see above the quantifying the quality) for

which the QC will be created. They will be the closing element (accumulator) of the QC. Most often these are distances between surfaces or axes, clearances, angular deviation between surfaces and axes.
3. Creation of the QC starts from the one end of the closing element and involve

only dimensions which influence directly the closing element of the chain till
26

the other end of the closing element is reached. This should be the shortest distance.
4. In the assembly QCs one part can participate in one QC with only one

dimension. If this is not achieved, either is a mistake or a parallel chain is influencing the first one. On figure below is given an example of assembly of two plates with a dowel pin and the functional characteristic is to ensure that there is a clearance A. The two parts participate in the QC with only one dimension A1 and A2. The designer has not given the dimension A2 but the dimensions B1 and B2 for part1. In this case first has to be determined the dimension B=A2.

5. The elements of the QCs can change their meaning as it was mentioned above depending on the stage of the preparation, manufacturing or assembly of the final product or system. 6. Parts assembled with clearances will count as separate parts as it allows moving of one part relative to the other. Parts assembled with interference fits will count as one part as for example the axes of the shafts and the bushes cannot be misplaced during the exploitation of the product and it is irrelevant to the value of the interference fit whether it is 3 micrometers or 30 micrometers.
27

3.5 Defining the characteristics of the closing element (accumulator) of a QC Each element of the QC, including the closing element, is characterised by three components:
1. Nominal dimension A; 2. Tolerance T or field of variation ; 3. Position of the middle of the tolerance EM.

) Calculation of the nominal dimension of A From the examples shown till now for the liner QCs can be seen that the nominal of the closing element is a sum of the structural elements taken with the corresponding sign depending on whether they are increasing or decreasing.

A3 A2

A4 A1

Obj101

, In general

Obj102

, or

Obj103

, Where:

i is the nominal value of i

28

-th

element;

m number of the increasing elements; n the total number of the structural elements;

i Ratio, showing the influence of the i-th element onto the

closing element .In this case i could be +1 or -1, respectively for

increasing and decreasing structural element. In QCs with non parallel elements the task can be resolved in two ways: 1 By projecting the structural elements onto the direction of the closing or by projecting of all elements onto coordinate system.

Example of such QC is shown on the figure above. b) Calculation of the Tolerance T or the fields of variation .

According to the calculation of the nominal the closing element is a function of all structural elements of the QC e.g.

Obj104

29

In principle, the tolerances have values which are very small in comparison to the nominal (e.g. 80-0.03). This allows the deviations within the tolerances to be presented as small changes of the nominal Ai.

Obj105

Therefore:

Obj106

In this case is the ratio and shows the effect of the ith element onto the closing element of the QC and should be taken as absolute value. The design QCs, use the prescribed value of the variation of a dimension which is the tolerance Ti. The Manufacturing QCs use the variation of the processes .
Obj108 Obj107

For QCs with parallel elements:

Obj110 Obj109

c) Calculating the position of the middle of the tolerance EM.

EM in general or for a specific QC EMA, gives the position of the middle of the tolerance according to the nominal (see the fig below).

30

T A

M E A

Am n i

A3 A2

A4 A1

Obj111

Obj112

Obj113

Obj114

Therefore in general

31

Am x a

Obj115

********************************************************************* ********************
The 3 equations to remember!!!

Obj116

1.

Obj117

2.

Obj118

3. *********************************************************************************************

32

3.6 Tasks to be solved with the QCs: 1. When the characteristics of the closing element are known and

the characteristics of the structural elements are needed Ai , Ti , Ei. This task usually takes place during the design process.
2. When characteristics of the structural elements are known and the

characteristics of the closing element are needed , , and M .

3.7 Improving the accuracy of the closing element of the chain

To increase the accuracy of the closing element of a QC, means to reduce the tolerance and the variability of this element. Having in mind the formulae above, there 3 ways of doing that:

Obj119

1. Decreasing the fields of variation of the construction elements of the chain; this is very often applied method but unjustifiable decrease of the Ti will make the product more expensive and not
sustainable on the market because requires more manufacturing operations and the production will be more expensive.

2. Decreasing the number of the construction elements in the QC (n); this is an effective and economically viable method. Example is given on the fig below.

The accuracy of the closing element in the first variant is guaranteed

by 4 structural elements and in the second with 2 structural elements. If , for example the ==0,4 mm, the average tolerances of the structural elements will be respectively for the first variant 0.1 mm and for the second 0.2mm. This means that the parts in the second variant will have twice the tolerance than the parts in the first variant (e.g it will be cheaper).

33

Obj120

3. Decreasing the ratio .

Obj121

This can be achieved by positioning of the structural elements which have severe contribution to the accuracy of the closing element on angle close to 90 in relation to the closing element. Then In design QCs this method has limited application. It is widely used in the Manufacturing QCs where the closing element can be made invariant to the errors brought by some structural elements. The example below shows the diminished influence of the positioning of the tool on the turret on a lathe onto the achieved machined diameter.

3.8 Methods for achieving the accuracy required for A

1. Method of full interchangeability; 2. Method of partial interchangeability (probability); 3. Method of group interchangeability (selection); 34

4. Method of compensation;

35

3.9 Method of full interchangeability This method applies when is needed 100% guarantee for the parameters of the QC. It has the following advantages: very easy and economically viable assembly; additional adjustment and additional work is not needed; fairly low qualification from the workers is required; good conditions for automation. The major drawback is that it is required high accuracy and the tolerances of the structural elements are the smallest compare to the other methods. Thats why it applies only for short QCs with up to 5 structural elements. The task for the designers is interesting. For the 3 characteristics of the structural elements the task is mathematically undetermined as there are 3 equations (for nominal, tolerance and middle of the tolerance of the closing element) and structural elements. n

Obj122

1. Determining of the nominal dimensions of Ai. They have to satisfy the

equation ;

Obj123

2. Calculation of the tolerances of the structural elements

The problems here can be resolved in two ways:

Obj125 Obj124

a) Equal tolerances. It is accepted that all structural elements have the same

tolerance . This is possible only if the nominals of the structural elements are similar. Additionally tolerances can be adjusted to satisfy the equation

Obj127 Obj126

;
36

b) Equal tolerance grades (based on BS EN 20286-1; ISO system)

Empirically it is established that the field of variation of the manufacturing processes can be described by the following equation: V=cxd V the zone of variation c- proportionality coefficient d- nominal dimension The Tolerances are calculated depending on the nominal size and the assumption is that all structural elements have equal tolerance grades. The solution is based on the interpretation of the ISO system for the calculation of the tolerance, depending on the tolerance factor i and the number of the tolerance units .

Obj128

Obj129

D=D1D2 The first part 0.453D accounts for the error of the manufacturing process And the second part 0.001D accounts for the errors in the measuring D - geometric mean for the standard range av number of tolerance units which will be equal for all structural elements of the QC i- Standard tolerance factor. All structural elements will have the same tolerance grade
37

Obj131 Obj130

, or .

Obj133 Obj132

If there are known tolerances of standard parts C they have to be taken away

Obj134

Obj135

For QC with parallel elements: c) Calculating of the position of the middle of the tolerance EMi To avoid the mathematical uncertainty in this case few assumptions are made:
-

For the standard elements (bearings, screws etc), the manufacturer EMi are taken into account;

Obj136

For external dimensions (e.g. shafts) it is adopted to use

Obj137

For internal dimensions (e.g. holes) it is adopted to use

Obj138

For other type of dimensions (e.g. linear dimensions) it is adopted to use symmetrical tolerance

Obj139

38

Then for the closing element it is possible to calculate REFLECTION: With this method the quality of A is guaranteed 100% for all extremes of the structural elements and thats why it is called min-max method

Recommended for the most important quality characteristic of the system Defence systems Short Quality Chains (max 5 elements) CONDITION! to be completely within T ( T )

A2

A3 A1

A4 A

QUESTION: What is the probability function of and how this will affect the life performance of the product?

A1 (1)

M E

A2 (2)

M E A

A3 (3)

A4 (4)

A ( A())

?
3.10 Method of partial interchangeability (probability method) This method is used for longer (n>5) QCs but the sequence of calculations is the same as with the full interchangeability method (Ai ,Ti , EMi). The difference is in the approach for calculating the tolerances. This method does not cover all extreme
39

situations and do not guarantee 100% accuracy of the closing element of the QC but at the same time the probability of such extreme situations is very low and decreases with the increase of the number of the elements in the QC. Thats why with this method is assumed certain percentage scrap but structural elements of the QC have bigger tolerances. The structural elements of the QC are regarded as random variables having certain distribution function. Most often is used normal distribution but its use must be justified. In the case that the distribution is not normal but there are number of structural elements with different distribution, the compound distribution of the closing element will be close to normal distribution.

Obj140

On the figure below is the mathematical expectation; standard deviation; P probable percentage scrap; t - risk factor.

P% scrap t

0.01 3.89

0.10 3.29

0.27 3.00

1.0 2.57

2.0 3.32

3.0 2.17

4.0 2.05

4.5 2.00

5.0 1.96

10 1.65

40

Obj141

To determine the is used a theorem from the probability theory. The variance of a sum of independent random variables is equal to the sum of variances of the random variables. The structural elements of the QC are independent random variables.

Obj142

Obj143

From the figure above we can express , than

Obj145 Obj144

and from here we can express

Obj146

In this case we have to consider the distribution functions of the structural elements which is given by

Normal distribution

1/9 1/3 1/6

Uniform distribution Triangular distribution

Obj148 Obj147

For QCs with non parallel structural elements we have to include as for each element is has a constant value.

Obj149

41

Obj151 Obj150

For QCs with parallel structural elements and normal distribution (,) the tolerance is calculated with the following equation:

Obj152

a) Method of equal tolerances

The average tolerance can be calculated

Obj154 Obj153

And for QCs with parallel elements

b) Method of equal tolerance grades (BS EN 20286-1; ISO system)

In this case the difference is only in calculating of av

Obj155

Using the ISO standard for calculating the tolerance we can calculate:

Obj157 Obj156

For QCs with parallel elements The probability method is very effective with QCs with higher number of structural elements. This can be demonstrated by the following example: EXAMPLE:

Obj159 Obj158

42

If we have , , parallel elements, normal distribution i=1/9 and we assume scrap of 0.27% ( 6)

Obj161 Obj160

The full interchangeability method will give and the probability method will give , which is 3 times more. This means that the structural elements will be manufactured cheaper and the probability of scrap is only 0.27% . REFLECTION:

With this method the quality of A is NOT guaranteed 100% Recommended for the majority of the QCs Quality Chains with more than 5 elements (n>5) CONDITION to be completely within T ( T )

Obj163 Obj162

To remember and

A2

A3

A4 A5 Ac

A1

43

QUESTION: What is the probability, all structural elements to come with their extremes (all increasing in their max and all decreasing in their min values or vice versa) for a QC with 9 structural elements?

3.11 Method of the group interchangeability

M E

Obj164

This method applies for very short QCs where extremely high accuracy is required and its achieving is either technologically impossible bearings, or fuel economically injection not viable etc.)
are

M E

to

achieve

(examples using full

pumps

Calculated

interchangeability method tolerances Ti

the new tolerances

increased k times so that

are technologically possible or economically

viable. After machining, the parts are measured 100% and parts according to the dimensions achieved are split in k groups. Parts are assembled only from the same groups.

44

This method is applicable when the following conditions are considered:

Obj166 Obj165

1. Quality of the assemblies in all groups should be the same

otherwise the assemblies will have different performance. Most often this method is used for QC with 3 elements, 2 structural and one closing. The tolerances of the two structural elements must be equal. On the figure above are given the tolerances of the two structural elements TA and Tar and the extended k times
tolerances and . Let Ji denotes the average clearance in the ith

group. Equal quality will be achieved if :

Obj167

According to the figure above:

Obj168

Obj169

45

-------------------------

Obj170

Therefore:

Obj171

Initial condition of the method was k2 Therefore:

Obj173 Obj172

or QCs with more than 3 elements requiring this method can be transferred into 3 elements QC if we combine all increasing elements into one and all decreasing element into one element.

Obj177 Obj176 Obj175 Obj174

For example we can show guaranteeing the clearance in a ball bearing shown on the figure below. A1 and A3 are the diameters of the internal and the external rings; A2 and A4 and the diameters of the balls. Lets assume that we have to guarantee clearance of . In this case the only increasing

element is A1 and it is the most difficult to manufacture. Let give to this element a tolerance of . This way already half of the tolerance of the closing element is gone. The 5 micrometers left have to be distributed among the decreasing elements . The balls have more accurate manufacturing process and they will have . For the tolerance of the internal ring we have left. This means that the two tracks on the internal and the external rings will be manufactured with different tolerances.
46

2. Distribution functions of the extended tolerances must be the

same otherwise the groups will have different number of produced parts which cannot be assembled. On the figure below this is demonstrated where the amount of produced parts which cannot be assembled is proportional to the hatched area.

3. Number of the groups k should be kept to a minimum and must not exceed 3-5 as the efficiency of the method decreases. 4. Tolerances for the shape and position should not be extended and kept according to Ti as they will affect the final accuracy of the closing element of the QC. 5. Parts need to be measured 100% and stored separate. 3.12 Method of compensation

47

Obj178

This method applies as an alternative of the method of the partial interchangeability, when the latter cannot guarantee the accuracy of the closing element of the QC. With this method is possible to guarantee high accuracy of the closing element but decision to apply this method should be taken early at the design stage. In the design of the product is included a special element called a compensator. And through change of its dimensions the final accuracy is achieved. Some of the calculated tolerances using the probability method still may not be economically viable Ti and they are extended to economically viable tolerances .

Obj180 Obj179

Then the new closing element tolerance will be: . The difference the compensator.

is called

tolerance for compensating and should be covered by the special new element Apart from the possibility of producing the parts more economically viable (sustainable) this methods allows in the process of exploitation of the product the accuracy of the closing element to be recovered after certain time. The method has few possible realisations depending on the type of the compensator element: fixed, adjustable, deformable, automatic (self adjustable). On the figure below are shown two examples of fixed and adjustable compensator. The advantage in the latter case is that the accuracy can be restored without disassembling the unit. Typical example for this is adjusting the clearance in the valves in the internal combustion engines.

48

B B

Bc

Calculations for a fixed compensator.

Obj181

The tolerance for compensating is splint into N groups. In each group should be compensated tolerance within -com, where Tcom is the tolerance of the compensator itself and not to be mixed with the tolerance for compensating T k. Tcom should be much smaller than Tk. It is necessary to calculate the number of the groups N and the dimensions Aki of the compensators in each group. The dependencies can be derived from the figure given below:

49

com

The nominal dimension of the first group compensators Ak1is selected for technological and economical reasons: to have a cheap, reliable and accurate enough method to be produced. The idea is the nominal to be as small as possible not to affect severely the design of the product. The nominal dimensions of the following group compensators can be calculated as follows:

Obj182

Obj183

---------------------------Obj184

Additionaly from the figure above:

50

Obj185

From here we can calculate the number of the groups needed

Obj186

According to the above formula, the smaller the Tcom is the les groups will be used. The number of the needed compensators in each group will be determined according to the distribution function of A. When compensating for long QCs it is very likely that this will be normal distribution.

Calculations for a number of equal fixed compensators

(shims)

Obj188 Obj187

This method is widely spread as it uses cheap compensators. The thickness of the compensator has to be equal (the best) or proportional to the

not considering the Tcom, , where (integer). Here also is very important how to determine the nominal dimension of the first compensator (all the rest will be equal). In this case is need to be produced a special part. It would be the best if the Ak1 is:

Obj189

The number of the compensators (shims) are determined similarly to the number of the compensator groups with a fixed compensator element.
Obj190

51

In practice N is not calculated but the approach is similar to the adjustable compensator where the dimension A is measured and compensated till within the allowable range.

Compensating with deformable compensator

Deformation can be elastic and plastic. In the first case springs are used and the deformable length of the spring should cover for the tolerance to be compensated and the min force on the spring should be bigger than the working force in the assembly.

As a plastically deformable compensator usually are used soft materials like copper, aluminium, plastics. Example of such compensator is shown on the figure below.

Major advantage of this method is that it is quick, there is no need of special compensators to be manufactured, there is no need of any measurements, and can work well in automatic assemblies. The drawback is that if the unit is disassembled it will require fresh deformable compensator.

52

4.

Put all this to practice

Tasks:
1. Create QCs for all shafts guaranteeing a clearance in the bearings (3 QCs) 2. Create QCs guaranteeing clearance in all gear engagements (2 QCs) 3. Create QCs guaranteeing gears not to touch inside of the gear box ( (2QCs) 4. Create QCs guaranteeing keys not to be out of the gear hubs (2 QCs) 5. Create QCs for mismatch of the gears (aligning of the gears) (2QCs)

53

54

Some examples of QCs

56

57

5. Classification of the parts surfaces

After the conceptual design where the structure of the new product will be created as shown on the figure below, the next step is to go through strength and rigidity calculations which will allow calculating the initial nominal dimensions of the new product. At this stage is clarified the shapes and dimensions of the most of the parts involved. The shape of the parts surfaces should reflect their function, as the aim is to use the simplest possible shapes.

58

QUESTION: During the Detailed design stage, when dimensioning the parts, does it matter which dimensions will be given on the detailed drawing?

59

Based on the QCs theory now we can extract rules for classification of the surfaces and dimensioning of the parts.

Analysis of different products and systems show that according to its function, parts surfaces can be classified as follows:
1. Main Datums (MD) number of surfaces which determine the position of the

part in the product or system;

2. Auxiliary Datums (AD) - number of surfaces which determine the position of

other parts according to the regarded part;

3. Working surfaces (WS) number of surfaces through which the regarded part

does its function;

60

4. Connecting surfaces (CS) number of surfaces which connect the first 3

types of surfaces, ensuring the needed distances and rigidity of the part. On the figure below is given an example of the above classification.

AD MD CS WS

CS

AD WS CS MD

AD

5.1 Method of dimensioning of the parts: There is no problem with dimensioning diameters and distance between axes as their nominal are calculated from strength and rigidity calculations as well as kinematic accuracy and their tolerances are calculated from the Design QCs. The problem is with functional linear dimensions. There are different variants due to different considerations and different approaches. The most rational and technologically correct should be considered this solution which can guarantee the functionality of the designed product or system with the biggest possible tolerances given to the parts. This will be also the most sustainable solution as it will guarantee the functionality of the product at the minimum price.

61

On that ground and on the basis of the above classification of the parts surfaces and the QCs theory, can be formulated the following algorithm for dimensioning of the parts.
1. Clarify the functionality of the product or unit, the role of each part in it and the

quality criteria of the product which this part is involve in.

2. Determine the design datum of the product or unit in the selected direction

(the products are 3D!)

3. Clarified the role of each part in the designed product or system; 4. Select the Main Datum of the part in this direction. 5. Give dimensions from the MD to the ADs 6. WS are dimensioned to the closest MD or AD 7. Give dimensions to the own lengths of the MDs 8. Give dimensions to the own lengths of the ADs 9. Give dimensions to the own lengths of the WSs

This algorithm is applied for axial dimensioning of the shaft from the figure above. These dimensions are sufficient for the functional dimensioning of the shaft. The dimension A12 is given in brackets meaning for information, but can be omitted. As it is seen from this dimensioning, only the connecting surfaces are not given with their own lengths. When dimensioning using the above algorithm, there is a hesitation which dimension to be given, the best criteria would be the QCs theory. It should be given the dimension which has smaller tolerance calculated according to the above described methods. This method for linear dimensioning of the parts assigns dimensions based on the functionality of the part and it is expected that if two parts have the same geometry but different functions in two different products, they will be dimensioned differently.

62

The method guarantees the biggest possible tolerances for the assigned dimensions, which will reflect in the cost of the manufacturing of those parts. Dimensioning of the parts according to the above algorithm also guarantees better and cheaper manufacturing not only because of the biggest tolerances assigned to the dimensions but also because it gives much less problems associated with stack up tolerances and process planning which will be demonstrated in the next chapter. Sustainable Manufacturing
1. What is manufacturing? Manufacturing is the use of machines, tools and labour to produce goods for use or sale. The term may refer to a range of human activity, from handicraft to high tech, but is most commonly applied to industrial production, in which raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale. Such finished goods may be used for manufacturing other, more complex products, such as aircraft, household appliances or automobiles, or sold to wholesalers, who in turn sell them to retailers, who then sell them to end users the "consumers". Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems. In a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more frequently directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In free market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation. Modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required for the production and integration of a product' components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead. The manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design. Examples of major manufacturers in the North in America include General Asia Motors Corporation, General Electric, and Pfizer. Examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group, Siemens, and Bridgestone. 2. Economics of Manufacturing According to some economists, manufacturing is a wealth-producing sector of an economy, whereas a service sector tends to be wealth-consuming. Emerging technologies have provided some new growth in advanced manufacturing employment opportunities in the 63 and Michelin. Examples include Toyota, Samsung,

Manufacturing Belt in the United States. Manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defence. On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs. The clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks. Developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labour laws and environmental laws. In the U.S, manufacturers are subject to regulations by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration and the United States Environmental Protection Agency. In Europe, pollution taxes to offset environmental costs are another form of regulation on manufacturing activity. Labour Unions and craft guilds have played a historic role negotiation of worker rights and wages. Environment laws and labour protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world. Tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing. Manufacturing requires huge amounts of fossil fuels. The construction of a single car in the United States requires, on average, at least 20 barrels of oil.

3. The Key Role of Sustainable Manufacturing in Achieving Sustainable

Development The main enabler of global sustainable development is a new paradigm: competitive sustainable manufacturing. Therefore, sustainable manufacturing is explored from different aspects which encompass products and services, processes and business models. In order to have a comprehensive approach towards examining the sustainable manufacturing, three main levels need to be considered. Those three levels were defined by Jovane at al (2008, p.646-647) and are discussed below: Macro: macro economics. Meso: production and consumption paradigms. Field level: products/services, processes, business models. Sustainability at the macro level is concerned with a global strategy to protect the environment while economical development improves social life. It is at this level where sets of indicators have been developed at international level to monitor the
64

implementation of sustainability strategies. Global Report Initiatives (GRI) and the Dow Jones Sustainability Indexes (DJSI) are two organisations which set out the indicators for sustainability performance. GRl provides the agenda for an organisation on how to prepare the sustainability reporting. Its mission is transparent exchange of sustainability information. It sets out the principles and indicators that organisations can use to measure and report their economic, environmental and social performance. However, the DJSI provides information about the sustainability performance of the companies in the form of investable indexes for investors and only monitors the performance of the best-in-class companies in the field of corporate sustainability. Sustainability at the meso level is concerned with the response paradigms, i.e. Processes and business models. At this level sustainable manufacturing should respond to economical challenges by producing wealth which ensures development and competitiveness over time. To respond to environmental challenges manufacturing should reduce the use of natural resources and promote alternative energies while reducing its environmental impact. To respond to social challenges, sustainable manufacturing must improve quality of life through producing wealth and jobs. Sustainability at the field level is focused on the products and services. Products should be safe and ecologically sound throughout their life cycle. They should be designed for durability, re-use, disassembly, and recycling. The product packaging should be designed in a way which uses the minimum amount of materials. Manufacturing is no longer considered as the physical process. It is now defined as the full cycle of marketing, design, production, distribution and service which all referred as the manufacturing value chain.
4. Product-Oriented Sustainable Manufacturing

Examining sustainable manufacturing at the field level has shown that it started in (the l980s with waste reduction, known US clean production. This resulted in the reduction of resources and energy use in production which changed the paradigm of sustainable manufacturing from production-oriented to product-oriented. The product-oriented approach has two goals. First, it aims to reduce resources and
65

energy used for a product; second, to reduce consumption of toxic materials, and to develop and use renewable materials. Product oriented manufacturing is increasingly turning the focus of manufacturing towards enhancing use-productivity in the total product life cycle. Therefore it is required that manufacturing firms employ strategies which allow efficient use of a product during its life time. This concept has been translated to useproductivity by Seliger et al. (2008). They have recommended three strategies for increasing the use-productivity which are explained below: Implementation of Innovative Technologies: Developing innovative technologies which can be applied to product and process design in order to reduce resource utilisation. Modularity and lightweight construction are examples of this kind. Improving the Use-Intensity: increasing the utilisation ratio of a product or its components. It can be achieved by developing a business model which focuses on the use of a product not the product itself or by focusing on sustainable use of a product by the user. Extension of Product Life Span: Extending the time between cradle and grave of a product by expanding the use phase. It can be achieved through maintenance and modification. Modification involves up-and downgrading, rearrangement and modernisation during the use phase due to changed functional requirements. However, in order to achieve success in implementing above strategies, it is necessary that some consideration been taken during the design phase of product development. According to Van Nes and Cramer (2003), there are five main design factors that should be considered to optimize product use during its life time. They are named as:

Design for upgradability Design for product attachment Design for variability Design for reliability and robustness

66

Design for repair and maintenance

Design for upgradability refers to the potential to add new functionality to the product during the life cycle. Design for product attachments is concerned with potential to bond two products together. Design for variability demands the possibility of offering variation to the customer. Finally design for reliability and repair is concerned with the quality of the product maintainability. Similarly, can be pointed out the importance of design for disassembly. Considering disassembly features at the early stage of design, facilitates efficient deconstruction at the end of product life cycle Thus materials can be recycled after the consumer no longer requires the original item with minimal loss of purity. Optimizing the product-use has increasingly created new opportunities for manufacturing to offer eco-friendly services. Eco-efficient services are divided in three categories: Product services, use services, and result services. Product services offer additional service for the product sold such as maintenance, repair and upgrading. In the Use Service the manufacturer no longer sells the product, just its use, like leasing, sharing and renting. The purpose of the Result Services is to guarantee a certain result for the customer regardless of the material product. As can be seen, sustainability has brought new prospects for developing innovative products and services. To illustrate the typology of ways by which innovation can contribute to sustainability, it can be referred to the work of Bessant and Tidd, (2007).
5. What is sustainable manufacturing?

Although a lot of effort has been made in the past, there is no worldwide acceptable definition for the term sustainable manufacturing. According to the U.S. Department of Commerce, sustainable manufacturing is defined as: the creation of manufactured products that use processes that minimize negative environmental impacts, conserve energy and natural resources, are safe for employees, communities and consumers and are economically sound. (Jayal et al., 2010) The National Council for Advanced Manufacturing (NACFAM) in the U.S. states that sustainable manufacturing includes the manufacturing of sustainable products and the sustainable manufacturing of all products. The former
67

includes the manufacturing of renewable energy, energy efficiency, green building, and other green and social equity- related products and the latter emphasizes the sustainable manufacturing of all products taking into account the full sustainability/ total life cycle issues related to the products manufactured. (Jayal et al., 2010) Manufacturing influences the energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. The development of energy efficient manufacturing processes could reduce the environmental impact. (Domfeld, LMAS, p.9) The following figure illustrates the sources that have environmental impact on manufacturing from technology, energy and materials perspective.

In order to make manufacturing sustainable, all three levels product, process and systems- must be taken into consideration. At the product level, in order to move towards sustainable manufacturing it is important to consider the more recent 6R concept (reduce, reuse, recover, redesign, remanufacture, recycle) than the 3R concept (reduce, reuse, recycle) that supports green technologies. The use of the 6R concept allows the transformation from an open- loop, single life cycle paradigm to a more theoretically closed- loop and multiple life cycle paradigms. At the process level it is essential to be able to implement optimized technological improvements, plan processes in order to reduce energy and resource consumption, toxic wastes and hazards and improve product life. At the system level it is important to
68

take into consideration the whole supply chain, including all the major life cycle stages, pre-manufacturing, manufacturing, use and post- use. (Jayal et al., 2010).

According to the 6R concept- methodology, reduce refers to the three first stages of the product life- cycle and includes the decremented use of resources at the premanufacturing stage, decremented use of energy and materials during the manufacturing stage and the decrement of waste at the use stage. Reuse, refers to the use of materials and components after the first product life- cycle is completed, in order to reduce the use of new raw materials to manufacture products and components. (Jayal et al., 2010). Sustainability issues at the product level arise due to the continuous flow of energy and materials input and output into the products life. For that reason is important to take into consideration the total life- cycle of a product, in order to be able to assess a products sustainability. After this evaluation the selection of products between different designs or production processes, concerning sustainability is easier. (Jayal et al., 2010) There are various methodologies analysing the product life cycle, other include matrix approaches with the use of target plots for the five life cycle stages of a product, pre- manufacturing, manufacturing, product delivery, use and recycling. Other, more recent approaches include only four product life cycle stages, pre-

69

manufacturing, manufacturing, use and post- use. Jayal et al. state that a more innovative 6R approach must be used. (Jayal et al., 2010) Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool that is used to quantify the general environmental and economic impact, comprising for example of the energy and material consumption and carbon footprint of the product life- cycle. The application of LCA in practice for the assessment of design alternatives can sometimes immense due to excessive detail as it is reported by Jaya et al. There are many attempts worth to mention in order to simplify LCA in several applications. (Jayal et al., 2010).
6. Sustainable Machining

According to Jaya et al. sustainable machining results in more environmental friendly processes, to the reduction of cost, energy consumption and waste, to improved operations in terms of safety and better health for the personnel. (Jayal et al., 2010) The machining has direct and indirect impact. The indirect impact is greater because of the effect that has on the surface integrity and consequently on the products lifecycle.

In order to be able to implement sustainable processes for machining in product design, it is essential to evaluate efficiently the overall process sustainability index. Overall sustainability index can be calculated from the equation below: S = CSHE SSHE +Cop Sop

70

where SSHE is the sustainability index for the three elements of safety, health and environment, CSHE is a relative weighting factor, Sop is the operational sustainability index of the process based on the elements of machining, power consumption and waste management and Cop, is a relevant weighting factor. (Jayal et al., 2010)
7. Manufacturing Issues

In recent years manufacturing industry is obliged to measure quantitatively its manufacturing sustainable performance. Feng et al. studied and developed a process to measure sustainability of a product in its whole life- cycle. The manufacturing sustainable performance comprises of environmental, social and economical benefits, material preparation, manufacturing, distribution, use and postuse. (Feng et al., 2010) Well- defined means of measuring and tracking an indicator for the manufacturing industry which is characterized by: Measurability: the indicator ought to be quantitative measurable in a phenomenon with sustainable approach. Relevance and Comprehensiveness: the indicator should provide manufacturing processes with useful sustainability information. Apprehension and Meaningfulness: the indicator ought to be understandable by everyone. Ability to be managed: indicators are reduced to the minimum number needed. Organizations decide on the number of indicators utilized. Reliability: information provided by indicator ought to be valid. Accessible Cost- Effective Data: the indicators data should be accessible. Timely manner: the frequency of measurements is such, that timely and informative decision- making is enabled. (Feng et al., 2010) The number of companies measuring manufacturing sustainable performance is rapidly increased. Companies are seeking to apply sustainable accounting and impact analysis. The objectives that companies desire to achieve are:
71

 Elimination of waste Energy efficiency Product design for processes such as disassembly, reuse and recycle Habitual conservation Zero non- renewable resources consumption. (Feng et al., 2010) The sustainability manufacturing performance according to Feng et al. can be measured in two domains, life- cycle activities/stages and levels in an organization. (Feng et al., 2010) NIST reports that the main key requirements for the sustainability measurement infrastructure are: Indicator Repository Measurement Guidelines Analysis and reporting tools.

72

8. Some definitions

Production process- encompasses all the activities of the people and machines in a factory to transfer the input raw material into final product. It can be considered in few aspects: technological, logistic, economical and social. Technological process- is part of the production process and includes only activities directly linked with transformation of the raw material into final product and activities for measuring the quality parameters of this transformation (e.g. the process of measuring the dimensions during the machining is part of the technological process). The activities linked with the acceptance of the production are not part of the technological process. The technological process has 3 main components: preparation of the workpieces; machining of the parts; assembly of the parts. Workpiece- the raw material or partially finished piece that is shaped by performing various operations and is the input to the technological process of the particular factory. Allowance for machining- this is the amount of material to be removed from the workpiece to achieve the final shape and accuracy of a part. Usually the total amount of material to be removed is split in allowances for different machining stages. Working place- this is the smallest structural unit of the production structure of the factory where all needed equipment is placed for conducting individual isolated work. Technological equipment- Tangible property (other than land or buildings) of more or less durable nature which is useful in carrying on the operations of a business. For example, devices, machines, tools. Batch- the amount (quantity) of the final product with the same name dimensions and model.
1. Structure of the technological process

The technological process consists of operations, settings, positions, passes.

73

Process plan- list of operations in their sequence including type of equipment, jigs, fixtures, tools, work force needed and time for completion of the task. Operation- finished part of the technological process for machining of one or few workpieces by one or few workers on one working place. Unity of workpiece-workerworking place. The operation is the main structural element of the technological process for planning, organising and resources calculation of the technological process (turning, milling, drilling etc.). Setting- this is a part of the operation which is done during one location and clamping (one setting) of the workpiece. Position- each one of the fixed different positions which the workpiece takes in relation to the tools and different parts of the machine. New positions appear when the located and clamed workpiece moves on the machine to a fixed place before machining to continue. Multi-position machining is more effective as it achieves higher accuracy, higher productivity and lower cost. On the figure below it is shown example of 4 positions operation for drilling, core drilling and reaming of 2 holes per workpiece. Position 1 is for removing of the ready parts and loading of the system.

Obj191

Pass- is a finished part of the operation of one or few surfaces with one or few tools with common cutting conditions. The pass is unity of 3 elements: surface, tool and cutting conditions. If one of the three element changes it is a new pass. Rough and finishing machining of one and the same surface are two passes. On the figure below is given an example of turning of a shaft. This operation consists of one setting, one position and two passes (machining of the faces and the cylindrical surfaces).

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Obj192

The main task to make the process planning sustainable can be regarded in two different ways:
a. Structural optimisation- seeking the most suitable variant of the structure of

the process planning according its elements: operations, positions, settings and passes;
b. Parametric optimisation- determining of the optimal values of the cutting

conditions, tool geometry, or other parameters of the technological system. The degree of separation of the operation to the structural elements depends on the type of the manufacturing (one-off, batch, mass production).
2. Technological characteristics of the type of manufacturing

Depending on the volume of the production and the type of the produced goods, three main types of manufacturing can be considered: one-off, batch production and mass production. The type of the manufacturing can be expressed by K=OP, where O is the number of operations done for a month and P is the number of the working places. Depending on K the types of manufacturing are given in the table below. Type of manufacturing mass 1 high>1 10 batch middle>10 20 One-off small>20 40 >40

I.

One-off - This is the oldest form of production. With this type of manufacturing, we are concerned with individual products, which will probably not have a large number of pre-manufactured components (many different parts) in them.

Most of the time no two products will be the same and as the units are manufactured to customers' requirements, each unit can be expensive.

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Because very small numbers are made, the manufacturer would have to reset the equipment for each individual job. The manufacturer may even have to use different materials for each individual product. All this adds to the production costs for the company. Each one of these one-off products has a high unit cost. Technological characteristics: a. Mainly are used universal machine tools and for some operations CNC machine tools; b. Machine tools are arranged in groups according its type (turning, milling, grinding etc.) c. Possibilities of automation are very low; d. Qualification of the workers is very high; e. Methods of adjusting and clocking are widely used; f. Productivity is very low and cost of the production is high;

g. Process planning is giving only sequence of operations. II. Batch production Manufacturing process in which components or goods are produced in groups (batches) and not in a continuous stream. This type of manufacturing represents the biggest share of all manufacturing on the market (75-80%). Depending on the size of the batches can be distinct small, medium and high volume of the products in the batches. Technological characteristics: a. Great variety of equipment is used depending on the size of the batch. For small batches are widely used CNC machine tools and some universal machine tools. Jigs and fixtures are re-adjustable and reconfigurable. b. Machine tools are arranged according to the sequence of operations; c. Possibilities of automation are still limited and increases with the increase of the batch size; d. Work force consists of operators with lower qualification and setters with very high qualification;

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e. Productivity increases and the cost of production drops depending on the size of the batch; f. Process planning is developed to the level of passes.

III. Mass production - Manufacture of goods on a large scale, a technique that aims for low unit cost and high output. In factories mass production is achieved by a variety of means, such as division and specialization of labour and mechanization. These speed up production and allow the manufacture of near-identical, interchangeable parts. Such parts can then be assembled quickly into a finished product on an assembly line. The technique was first implemented by US automobile pioneer Henry Ford in 1908, for the manufacture of the Model T Ford automobile. Division of labour means that a job is divided into a number of steps, and then groups of workers are employed to carry each step out, specializing and therefore doing the job in a routine way, producing more than if each individually had to carry out all the stages of manufacture. However, the system has been criticized for neglecting the skills of workers and removing their involvement with the end product. Technological characteristics: a. Specially designed machine tools and production lines are used; Jigs and fixtures are specially designed and even machine tools can be specially designed for production of specific part or product. Automated system for parts and product transportation and quality inspection control of the production are in place; b. Machine tools are arranged according to the process planning; c. Possibilities for automation are very high; d. Machine operators are with low qualification and setters are with very high qualification; e. Productivity is high and cost of the production is low; f. Process planning is developed to the smallest detail and synchronisation of the operations is compulsory. In one factory it is possible to observe all three types of manufacturing. Question? Give an example of manufacturing where all 3 types of production co-exist.

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9. Accuracy of the produced parts It is characterised by the degree of closeness to the ideal designed part. The accuracy of the produced parts is assessed by the deviations of the machined parts which are compared to the prescribed ones e.g the accuracy is judged by the measured errors. Parameters of the parts accuracy are: 1. Accuracy of the dimensions- cumulative deviation of the dimensions of batch of parts measured at the same place for all parts; 2. Accuracy of the relative position of the surfaces and axes ( non-paralel, nonperpendicular, non- symmetrical, run-out etc.); 3. Accuracy of the shape of the surface (geometrical accuracy). This geometrical accuracy should be considered on 3 levels according to the ratio of the pitch of the waves (S) to the amplitude of the waves (W). - Macro-geometry- S/W>1000 non-cylindricity, flatness etc. - Waviness- 40<S/W<1000 - Micro-geometry S/W<40 roughness 4. Physico-mechanical properties- strength, hardness, residual stresses, fatigue endurance etc. Between these quality parameters exists a quantitative dependence which is not well studied yet. It is commonly accepted that the quality parameters are ranked in the order as shown above. The tolerance of the dimension has to be bigger than the tolerance of the relative position, which has to be bigger than the tolerance of the macro-geometry, which has to be bigger than the tolerance of the micro-geometry. This also means that the inspection control has to be done in reverse order: roughness, waviness, macro-geometry, relative position, and at the end the dimension. The suitability of this method can be confirmed by the example given on the figure below.

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If B is not parallel to A which of the dimensions H will be accepted? Thats why it is needed the tolerance on non-parallelism to be within the tolerance of the dimension H. 10.Deviation of the quality parameters Even if the parts are manufactured at the same conditions, due to stochastic and systematic factors the final quality parameters deviate within certain limits.

Control charts, also known as Shewhart charts or process-behaviour charts, in statistical process control are tools used to determine whether or not a manufacturing or business process is in a state of statistical control. If analysis of the control chart indicates that the process is currently under control (i.e. is stable, with variation only coming from sources common to the process) then data from the process can be used to predict the future performance of the process. If the chart indicates that the process being monitored is not in control, analysis of the chart can help determine the sources of variation, which can then be eliminated to bring the process back into control. A control chart is a specific kind of run chart that allows significant change to be differentiated from the natural variability of the process. The control chart can be seen as part of an objective and disciplined approach that enables correct decisions regarding control of the process, including whether or not to change process control parameters. Process parameters should never be adjusted for a process that is in control, as this will result in degraded process performance.

Obj195 Obj194 Obj193

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Using the data from the control charts it is possible to build the distribution curve which also is not good for quantitative assessment of the process, thats why we have to build the distribution density function f(X) which is suitable for the quantitative assessment using for the position of the distribution function and for the deviation of the quality parameter in question.

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Setting up of the parts In order to meet their purpose the parts (including the processing technology systems), it is necessary parts to hold strictly defined relative position. During machining this is achieved by means of specific process, called setting. Setting up of the workpieces is the first compulsory stage in the machining process. After that follow the cinematic and QCs and the final stage is the actual process of machining (removing specific allowance). During the assembly process, setting of the parts guarantee the correct position of the parts in the assembly. Setting up of the workpieces is done in one of the following ways: 1. Directly onto the working table of the machine, or in universal jigs and fixtures by clocking the parts position. This method is very laborious and requires high qualification from the workforce and at the same time the accuracy is low to moderate. It is applicable in the conditions of one-offs production systems. 2. Setting up using special jigs and fixtures. The orientation of the workpiece in the working zone of the machine is automatic by bringing the workpice in contact with the required surfaces. This way guarantees less time for setting up, the required qualification from the workers is lower and the accuracy of the set parts is high. The process of setting up can be regarded in two stages: 1. Locating which guarantees a specific position of the worpiece according the selected coordinate system 2. Clamping This guarantees the located position not to be disturbed during the manufacturing process especially due the forces involved in the manufacturing process. From the theoretical Mechanics is known that each object has 6 degrees of freedom 3 translations X, Y and Z and 3 rotations along the same axes. With locating of the part, number of these degrees of freedom are restricted (removed). The shape and the size of the surfaces caring the restricting points also have to be considered. Locating of the parts is imposing links between the selected surfaces (datums) and the coordinate planes of the jigs, fixtures or the machine. When all 6 dergees

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of freedom are restricted the workpice is fully determined in the working zone of the machine. Schematic of location is a sketch of the part or workpice with all points of contact which remove the degrees of freedom. The figure below shows locating of a prismatic part with all point of contact and the removed degrees of freedom.

Obj196

Obj198 Obj197

For convenience, the translation degrees of freedom are marked with an arrow above the letter denoting the axis and rotations are denoted with a circular arrow above the letter denoting the axis. On the figure in brackets are also given each degree of freedom by wich datum point is restricted. It is also seen that to restrict the part fully, 6 datum poins are needed. Translations are restricted with one point in each diresction and rotations are restriced by two points along each axis.

Obj200 Obj199

The full orientation of a long cylinder (shaft) (l:d>1) is given on the figure below. Points 1 and 2 , restrict 2 degrees of freedom and .

Obj204 Obj203 Obj202 Obj201

The two points 3 and 4 restrict and . Point 5 restricts . The sixth degree of freedom is restricted by point 6.

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Obj207 Obj206

With the decrease of the ratio l:d<1, the location of the datum points changes as shown on the figure below. The short cylindrical surface can restrict the workpice only from 2 degrees of freedom and .

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On the other hand the fairly large face surfaces allow to put there 3 restricing points 3, 4 and 5.

Obj210 Obj209

Thats way it restricts 3 degrees of freedom and . The 6th point has the same pupose as before. From the mentiond above, it is obvious that one restriction (datum) point restricts one degree of freedom and to restrict all 6 degrees of freedom 6 restriction (datum) points are needed. This is known as the 6 points rule. Adding additional restriction points is wrong and have detrimental effect on the final accuracy of the location. General rule is that larger surfaces can take more restriction points. In order to have smaller errors from rotation the points have to be as far as possible from each other.

The examples above are not exhaustive and the rule of the 6 points has to be considered in each individual case. It is accepted that the graphical representation should be as follow:

Obj211

- side view;
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Obj212

- front fiew.
Selection of the locating points: The restricting points are selected based on analysis of the achieved dimensions and required accuracy of each operation

QUESTION: Do you remember what is OPERATION?

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On the figure above is shown location of the workpiece for machining of the top surface of a prizmatic part to achieve dimension A and non paralelizm . Analysis of the location is in the following order: 1. Select a coordinate system 2. Pick the 6 restricting degrees of freedom points; 3. For each degree of freedom is neded justification whether it is needed to be removed or not; 4. If the restriction is needed on the schematic is introduced the needed restricting point;

Obj215 Obj214

In this case, in order to achieve A and , it is not necessary to restrict and . To restrict only 3 degrees of freedom will be enough, which is known as partial location. The schematic of this operation is shown on the right hand side of the figure above. The needed location of the workpiece for an operation of milling is shown on the figure below. This operation has to gurantee achieving of dimensions A and B and paralelism of the machined surfaces with the sides of the wirkpiece.

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Obj216

Obj217

For these conditions may not be restricted. E.g. it is enough to have 5 degrees of freedom restricted. On the figure below is shown a schematic for location of a workpiece for operation of drilling and achieving dimensions B and G.

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Obj222 Obj221 Obj220 Obj219

From the figure above it is obvious that is not needed to be restricted. With the present dimensions of the workpiece it is necessary from the base to beselected 3 datum points. This is the only way to restrict and . This way the workpiece is restricted from all 6 degrees of freedom even it is not necessary to remove .

Obj223

When the side wall of the workpiece has the biggest surface area, the schematic of the drilling operation will change as shown on the figure below. In this case the workpiece has partiol location and is not restricted.

Obj224

So far it was demonstrated selection of the datum points for locationg of the wirkpieces in order to guarantee the acuarcy of the operations. For better sustainability of the operations the aim should be to guarantee also productivity and cost. This requires additional datum points to be introduced and even if only partial location of the workpiece is needed for achieving the accuracy of the part, all 6 degrees of freedom to be restricted. 86

Obj225

Based on the example from above where on the milling operations were needed to achieve dimensions A and paralelism , it is demonstrated that also need to be restricted in order to increase the productivity and effiviency of the operation. When the workpiece is located onto the machine and it is not restricted in X direction, there will be error as shown on the figure below. At least 2 should be incresed the working pass on the machine in order to cover for the fluctuation of the position of the workpice along X axis. This also means decresing of the productivity and reducing the efficiency of the operation. If the workpiece is also not restricted along Y axis, still the operation will achieve the needed dimensions, but in this case there will be fluctuation in the position of the workpiece along Y axis and bigger size milling cutter (D2) should be used in order to compensate for thei sfluctuation in the location of the workpice. This milling cutter also is expected to be more expensive and to contribute to the reduction of effeciency of the operation as well. The same arguments apply for the restriction of the workpice from rotation along Z axis.

Obj226

In practice some time it is necessary to use more than 6 points for location of the workpiece. The additional points do not determine the position of the workpice and are adjustable and are used to increase the rigidity of the machining system as shown on the figure below.

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Types of DATUMS:
Depending on the purpose and the area of use 3 types of datums can be distincted: Design, Measuring and Technological datum.

Design Datum: Combination of surfaces, lines and point which determine the position of the part into the assembly. These datums are: Main datum and Auxilary datum.
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Obj228

Specially for the design datums have to be mentioned that apart from real surfaces, datums can be axial line, points and simetrals. Measuring Datum: Combination of surfaces, lines and points used to determine the achieved accuracy of the part.

Obj229

Technological datums: Combination of real surfaces, lines and points, according which is determined the position of the part during machining. They are 3 types: Support datum, setting datum and check datum. -Support datum: this are surfaces that directly are in contact with the coresponding surfaces of the machine or jigs and fixtures. The figure below shows example of such datums:

Obj230

-Setting datum: this is surface which is machined on the same setting as the considered surface and there is a dimension between the two surfaces. Example of such setting datum is given on the figure below where on a CNC lathe is machined surface A (given with a dimension to the support datum) and after that are machined surfaces B and G dimensioned to the setting datum A.

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-Check datum: - real surface or even a drawn line according which the setting of the machine is adjusted.

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Usually check datums are used in one-off production type.

Selection of the technological datums: Correct selection of the technological datums is one of the most demanding and high responsibility job for the final sustainability of the whole manufacturing process. Very often there are multiple solutions and also very often various compromises has to be done. The final solution is derived following logical lay out of the sequence of the operations:

1. Discover the design datum in each direction of the part; 2. For the most accurate dimensions for the finishing operation in each direction
is selected final (finishing) technological datum;

3. Based on the selection of the finishing datum, is selected rough (initial datum)
for each direction. Unity of the daums: The selected technological datum is highly desirable to be the same as the design datum for each dimension. If the design datum is not a real surface but axial lines and point, they have to be materialised as real surfaces like centre holes for shafts or bearing shoulders. When the design and technological datum are the same, the machining of the surfaces is according to the prescribed by the designer dimensions. If they are not, the real machined dimensions are not the ones given by the designer and it is needed to calculate other technological dimensions which to satisfy the designer requirement and to give the link between the designed datums and the technological datum. This way 3 element Manufacturing Quality Chains should be calculated using full interchangeability method to guarantee the quality of the machining operation. The closing element is the designer dimension, which has to be guaranteed. The other dimension is the link between the designed and the technological datum and the third one is the setting dimension (from the tool to
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the technological datum). In this case usually the tolerances calculated for the setting dimension are much smaller that the tolerance of the designer dimension. This can be demonstrated by the figure given below. Surface B is the design and metrology datum for the depth of the machined grove. Surface A is the technological datum for the machining of the grove.

Obj233

The two datums are not the same. Therefore, there will be problem in achieving the dimension 10+0.2. Possible solutions are given on the figure below, where there are two approaches. One is to machine the grove from setting datum and the second is to machine the grove from check datum. Both solutions require higher cost for the machining operation. The first one because of the more complicated tooling required and the second one because each part has to be measured and check datum readjusted.

Obj234

Very often, the reduced tolerances are not economically viable and lead to much higher cost of the production. That is why justifying the dimensions and tolerances at early stage is the key for more sustainable products. Clever use of the operation sequence and maximum use of design datums as technological datums is the key for more sustainable manufacturing production. Clamping of the workpiece The aim of the clamping is to ensure unchanging of the position of the workpice during the machining and caused during machining forces and moments. Clamping is realised by applying forces to the workpiece, which guarantee reliable contact of the workpiece surfaces with the surfaces of the jigs and fixtures. If forces are applied toward each locating surface, there is a danger that the workpiece could become inaccessible for machining. That is why the
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clamping is simplified with (usually) only one clamping force applied pointing towards the main technological datum. Here, there is a danger that the applied force can change and disturb the location as shown on the figure below.

Obj235

Apart from disturbing the location, the clamping forces can cause additional deformation of the workpice as shown on the figure below.

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To avoid deformation of the workpiece the clamping forces have to be applied normal to the locating surfaces and as close as possible to the points of contact. The main requirement to the clamping is to ensure the needed forces for the clamping of the workpiece against the cutting forces and not to disturb the workpiece location and not to deform the workpice. Accuracy of the machined parts: Methods of shape ad dimension achieving Machining aims to reach the form and dimensions of the designed part starting from a workpiece with specific dimensions and shape. The shape of the part is achieved by moving of the cutting part of the tool along certain geometry in order to achieve the final part shape and the dimensions are achieved according to the technological datum. There are two main approaches to achieve the shape: method of copying the shape and method of generation of the shape. - Method of copying the shape Applies for surfaces with complex geometry. The cutting edge is a mirror image of the machined surface. This method is mostly applicable in turning, milling and broaching. There are fairly large cutting forces and the tools are more expensive.

- Method of generating of the profile (shape)- the final shape of the machined
surface is achieved by consecutive positions of the cutting edge of the tool reached by appropriate kinematic link between the cutting tool and the

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workpiece. This method is more often used in the modern machining technologies. Example of the same shape achieved by the both methods is shown on the figure below.

Obj237

Methods of achieving of the shape can guarantee the relative position of the different surfaces of the part, macro-geometry, waviness and roughness of the machined surface. Achieving dimensions and respectively achieving the needed accuracy is realised by two different approaches: method of individual achieving of a dimension and method of automatic achieving of a dimension.

1. Method of individual achieving of a dimension(s) is mainly used on universal

machine tools. The figure below illustrates this method.

Obj238

Initially is machined D1 and l1. After measuring and readjusting of the tool is machined D2 and l2, which are supposed to be the final dimensions. The achieved accuracy mainly depends on the measuring instruments and the accuracy of readjusting the tool position.

2. Method of automatic achieving of a dimension- in this method the influence of

the operator on the achieved accuracy is minimum or nonexistent. This can be achieved by:

a) Dimensionally determined tools (drills, core drills, reamers, broachers); b) Through use of pre-set tools. In this case, the tool is set to a specific
dimension according a technological datum. After that, a batch of parts is machined.

c) Through control of the position(s) of the tool tip via a program. Program here
is used a general term and may involve:

- Cam controlled movements; - Hydraulic copying machines;

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- CNC machines
Errors during machining and their influence on the efficiency of the process: Quantitative assessment of the accuracy of the parts is made based on the errors in the machining system. During the machining process, there is a unity of four elements: Machine tool, jigs and fixtures, cutting tools, workpiece. These four elements form the technological system. This system is regarded as a transformer of the input parameters to the system to output parameters. The four elements determine the transforming function.

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Independently from the source and factors causing the error, they can be classified as random and systematic. In the systematic can also be split in constant and following a specific function. Constant errors are those, which stay unchanged for the machining of a batch. Here can be mentioned:

- Errors from selected method of removing of the material. On the CNC

machines instead of following the curve of the profile, it is approximated with straight lines;

- Error of the tools (diameter of the drills, error of the profile of the profiled tools) - Errors from the wear of the machine - Errors from the wear of the jigs and fixtures - Errors from setting up of the tools.
Errors following specific function - are those, which during the machining change following specific function like:

- Wear of the tools - Temperature deformation of the whole technological system - Errors from change of the cutting force. (turning of a long shaft).
Random errors are those errors which are different for the different parts in the batch and their appearance is not following a specific function or logic and cannot be predicted in advance. Typical examples are:

- Errors from measurements. The error of the measuring devices used even if
they are known for the part they appear as random errors. In this case the prescribed tolerance should be reduced by the measuring error and will give so called working tolerance.

- Errors from locating and clamping - Errors from redistribution of the internal stresses in the part; - Errors from variation of the cutting forces; - Errors from setting up of the technological system between the batches;
Some examples of errors are given in the figures below:

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Tool wear errors

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Temperature deformation errors

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Temperature deformation of the tool

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Temperature deformation of the part and the final shape of the part.

Setting up of the technological system All the activities for preparing of a technological system (machine, tool, jigs and fixtures and workpiece) to perform specific operation is called setting up. It generally involves locating and clamping of the jigs and fixtures, tools and workpiece. Here further is considered maily dimensional setting of the tools to achieve the prescriber required dimensions according the coresponding technological datum. When dimensiions are achieved individually the setting up is laborious and has to be done for every workpiece. When method of automatic achieving of the dimensions is used, the setting up of the system is for every batch. During the process of machining, due to the systematic and random factors the position of the all 4 elements of the technological system cgange their position. There forre after some time after staring the operation additional sub-setting is required ti keep all dimensions within the required limits. The field of variation of parts in a batch, may have different spread and position according to the prescribed tolerance. Its instant value is due to the random factors affecting the technological system and its position will depend on the constant and systematic factors affecting the system. The error of setting up is formed by the random errors of location and clamping of the tools and also from measurment in the process of setting up. This error shows as a constant error for the parts of the batch machined with this setting. It is considered that setting up is correct if the following conditions are fulfilled:

1. The field of variation of the machining operation ( ) is with in the presribed

tolerance ().

2. It is guaranteed longest possible period of working of the thechnological

system with no need of sub-setting. In order to fulfill these two conditions, it is needed to calculate so called working setting up dimension. For this purpose the it is needed to use the control charrt in conjunction with the prescribed tolerance. Determining of the working setting up dimension: There are many types of control charts but generally only two types are used.

Obj244

TYPE 1 is called statistically stable process. These are processes which guarante constant value of the statistical characteristics =const and =const for a period of time beginning in and ending in k. On the figure below is the instant field of variation caused by the random errors in the system.

Obj246 Obj245

TYPE 2 is called technologically stable process (fugure above on the right). This type of control chart is observed with processes that maintain the same instant field of variation and and the avarage measured value (dimension) is changing following a specific function which usially is linear. When the shape and behaviour of the control chart is known, the setting up process is down to calculation of the so called working setting up dimension. (Aws) and linking it to the prescribed tolerance. For statistically stable processes the working setting up dimension Aws will be equal to the middle of the toleramce:

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The first condition of the setting up was <Tp. Statistically it is recommended

/Tp=0,750,85. If /Tp<0,75, it is considered that the process has a reserve of

accuracy and the productivity can be increased by increasing the parameters of the process. If /Tp>0,85 it is considered that there is a high risk of manufacturing parts outside of Tp. In technologically stable processes are possible two variations: dimensions are increasing in time or dimensions are decreasing in time. On the figure below is given an example of staistically stable process and technologically stable process with the need of sub-setting.

The longest workability of the technologically stable process will be achieved if the Aws is placed at the botom end of the working tolerance Tp

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The process can work for time k, when the upper limit of touches the upper limit of Tp. After that the system should be subset. If the control chart shows that the sistematic factors are decreasing the dimensions then the Aws should be placed in the upper Tp corner.

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Allowances for machining Total allowance is the material which to be removed from the workpiece to achieve the quality of the part; Intermediate allowance is the material to be removed on specific operation; Minimum allowance is the minimum material a operation can remove and to achieve the required results from the operation.

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