Use of Accelerometers and Gyroscopes in Position Sensing Introduction Position sensing is the core of autopilot technologies found in locomotives

such as aircraft and land-based vehicles. It is also used in prosthetics to determine precise bodypart movements and as well as in the entertainment industry for video gaming. For the simpler stationary devices, this is achieved through the use of gyroscopes and accelerometers. In more complex systems such as the International Space Station or satellites, a combined form of the gyroscopes and accelerometers is used called the Inertial Navigation System [1], [2]. This paper focuses on these two key elements that make up our position sensing devices today. In addition to showcasing their current applications, this paper also specifies the underlying principles and technologies of gyroscopes and accelerometers. Lastly, the key building blocks required to assemble these devices have also been specified. Current Applications of Accelerometers and Gyroscopes GM has come up with a system called Traffic Assist which will be installed on the 2008 Opel Vectra [3]. The car will be capable of piloting itself up to 60 mph in heavy traffic without any input from the driver. Honda introduced its Advanced Driver Assist System (ADAS) which slows the car down if it is too close to the car in front or increases the speed of the car if it is too close to the car behind it. These autopilot systems utilize gyroscopes and accelerometers as a part of the sensor network in order to determine turns and navigate obstacles [4]. The Wii controller also utilizes the controller itself as the primary controller instead of a joystick. The controller contains solid-state accelerometers and gyroscopes that let it sense tilting and rotation along each of the three axes of the controller. In addition, these sensors enable the controller to sense the acceleration upwards, downwards, to the left, to the right, towards the front and towards the back [5]. The Airbus 320 uses gyroscopes in order to determine the tilt of the plane about its longitudinal axis, i.e. it calculates the roll angle of the plane. Next, it compares the current roll angle to a pre-specified roll angle limit as per the safety limitations of the aircraft. If the limit has been reached, the system executes an automatic servo command to set the position of the ailerons to a constant position thereby preventing the pilot from executing an excessive roll maneuver [5]. Underlying Principles and Technologies of Gyroscopes and Accelerometers Gyroscopes Gyroscopes operate on a combination of the theory of conservation of angular momentum and Newtons first law of motion. As a result, a spinning disc undergoes precession which is a reaction of the spinning disc in a direction perpendicular to the plane containing its axis of rotation and the applied force. The resulting effect is that once you spin a gyroscope, its axle tends to point in the same direction. In order for this to be accomplished, the gyroscope needs to be able to pivot and rotate in the two dimensions

besides its own axis of rotation. This is achieved by mounting the gyroscope in a set of gimbals. The outer gimbal has one degree of freedom (DOF) while its axis has none. The inner gimbal pivoted to the outer one has two DOF rotationally, while its axis has one DOF [6]. If such a setup is placed onto a platform, one for each of the three dimensions, a reference co-ordinate frame can be obtained and maintained with respect to the moving (and/or rotating) object as well. The degree of rotation with respect to the each axis of the reference co-ordinate frame created by each of the three axles provides the angle of tilt of the object in each of the three dimensions [7]. A rate gyro utilizes a spring mechanism attached to the inner gimbal. The rotation of the inner gimbal is proportional to the rate of rotation along the input axis of the gyroscope. For a given rotation at a specific speed along the input axis, the inner gimbal gets displaced which in turn extends the spring. Once the gimbal displacement force balances out with the spring tensional force in the opposite direction, the displacement of the spring can be used to measure the input rotational speed using a graded linear measurement scale [6]. Accelerometers While gyroscopes only provide directional information, accelerometers provide the information of forces acting on or experienced by the object. Once the acceleration of the object in each dimension is obtained, successive integral computations can be used to calculate the velocity of and distance covered by the object. Along with a given initial location, the position of the object can then be tracked. This process is called DeadReckoning [2], [6]. A capacitive accelerometer sensor consists of a metal beam which produces capacitance, where the change in capacitance is related to acceleration. A piezoelectric accelerometer sensor consists of a piezoelectric crystal mounted to the mass; in this case the voltage output of the crystal (due to the acceleration) is converted to a reading. An accelerometer using the Hall Effect converts the motion to an electrical signal by sensing the changing magnetic fields. There are a plethora of technologies which use the change of a physical property due to acceleration of the object as an indicator of the degree of acceleration experienced by the object [8]. Since numerous technologies to obtain a reading of the same parameter (namely acceleration in a specific direction) exist, there are a number of performance measures to compare the utility of one sensor to another. Sensitivity and Ratiometric are two important performance parameters. Sensitivity provides a measure of the change in the sensor output for a change in the input acceleration. A larger output change produced makes it easier to detect smaller changes in acceleration, thereby providing greater accuracy. Ratiometric defines the change in output for a change in the input voltage, thereby allowing for correction due to supply voltage variances between readings. The supply voltage itself also provides for better readings as the sensitivity is higher at a higher supply voltage [8].

Requirements for implantation of Gyroscopes and Accelerometers The gyroscopes need to be supplied with some power to provide restoring torques to the rotational disc from time to time. Additionally, a gimbal servo-loop should be implemented to restore the error to near zero. In strapdown systems in military aircraft, the gyroscope must be able to sense angular rates as low as 0.005 deg/hr and as high as 400 deg/sec, a range of nearly nine orders of magnitude [8], [9]. The accelerometers, such as one from Texas Instruments, needs to have rigid mounting using either bolts or double sided tape depending on the size of the sensor. Loose wires should be checked for and removed or secured firmly to the mounting body in order to avoid creation of false signals. The weight of the sensor should be approximately an order of magnitude lesser than the object being measured. Also, safety precautions should be taken with the sensor as some accelerometers are not built to handle the extremely jarring accelerations developed when dropping a device. Lastly, the effect of tilt near the 0g position should also be taken in consideration. This is because a 1 tilt in the 0g position creates an output error equivalent to a 10 tilt in the +1g or -1g positions [8], [9].

[1] E. Johnson. AE 4580. Class Lecture, Topic: Inertial Navigation Systems. School of Aerospace Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, Mar. 9, 2008. [2] R. C. Nelson, Flight Stability and Automatic Control, 2nd ed. Singapore : McGrawHill, 1998 [3] A Car That (Really) Drives Itself: The 2008 Opel Vectra, Aug. 25, 2005. [Online]. Available: http://www.edmunds.com/insideline/do/News/articleId=107011. [Accessed: Sept. 3, 2008]. [4] Honda Accord ADAS auto-pilot system takes the reins - Engadget, Jan. 30, 2006. [Online]. Available: http://www.engadget.com/2006/01/30/honda-accord-adas-auto-pilotsystem-takes-the-reins/. [Accessed: Sept. 3, 2008]. [5] M. Brain, "How the Wii Works," Sept. 5, 2007. [Online]. Available: http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/wii.htm. [Accessed: Sept. 3, 2008]. [6] M. Kayton and W. R. Fried, Avionics Navigation Systems, 2nd ed. New York : John Wiley, 1997 [7] H. B. Christophersen, W. J. Pickell, A. A. Koller, S. K. Kannan and E. N. Johnson, Small Adaptive Flight Control Systems for UAVs using FPGA/DSP Technology, AIAA 3rd Unmanned Unlimited Technical Conference, Workshop and Exhibit on 20-23 September, 2004. [8] Texas Instruments, Accelerometers and How they Work, TI, 2007. [9] Dimension Engineering, Buffered +-5g Accelerometer, DE-ACCM5G datasheet, Nov. 2005 [Revised Sept. 2006].