MAKERERE

UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, DESIGN, ART AND TECHNOLOGY

FINAL PROJECT REPORT

For the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering Date: .. Name: Nsubuga Mansen Reg. No: 08/U/3080/PSA

MAKERERE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, DESIGN, ART AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

DECISION SUPPORT TOOLS FOR RURAL ELECTRIFICATION (A CASE STUDY OF ST. ANDREW PRIMARY SCHOOL MIGADDE) BY NSUBUGA MANSEN 08/U/3080/PSA

A FINAL YEAR PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELORS OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUPERVISOR MR.PATRICK MUGISHA ..

CO-SUPERVISOR MR.ANDREW MUGUWA

DEDICATION
I dedicate this report to my parents for their continued support and encouragement and to everyone who has been helpful and resourceful. Thank you.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First and foremost, I thank my supervisor, Mr. Mugisha Patrick and co-supervisor, Mr. Andrew Muguwa for guiding me through the course of doing my final year project. Thank you for helping me understand the project even more and for providing me with ideas on how to proceed with the project. Secondly, I thank the staff of St. Andrews primary school church of Uganda for allowing us to take their school as our case study area. I thank you for continued cooperation and providing me with all the information that I needed to carry on with the project. May God bless and award you abundantly. I would like to take this opportunity to thank my project partner, Musanje Gaster. You were such a cooperative and interactive guy. Thank you for all your contribution and effort towards the execution and completion of the project. I also take this opportunity to thank Mr. Bosco Babumba, Metering Manager UMEME Banda district. Thank you for being there whenever we needed your help and support. Thank you for providing us all the information and technical support unconditionally and reliably.

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ABSTRACT
The project involves studying the mechanisms for determining the most cost effective and appropriate source of electric power supply to a rural area. Considering various sources of electric power supply such as solar, biogas, diesel as either stand alone or hybrid systems and comparing it with the cost of extending of grid lines to the rural area.

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PREFACE
This report is a result of a study done on electrifying St. Andrews Primary School Migadde CoU, which currently has no renewable energy usage and grid power. Chapter one is a general introduction to the project and it includes background information on the status of the Energy sector in Uganda, the problem statement, justification, objectives of the project and the Methodology to provide guidance for the sucessful completion of this project. Chapter two covers the theoretical concepts of solar energy, diesel energy and biogass generator. Chapter three is about HOMER v2.68, the computer simulation software for Renewable cost calculation and optimization. Chapter four covers data analysis using HOMER v2.68 and the analysis of the grid extension results to derive conclusions and recommendations for the project. Chapter five consists of the Conclusion and Recommendations made in the report.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................................................. i ACKNOWLEDGMENT .............................................................................................................................................. ii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................................ iii PREFACE ................................................................................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................................ vi LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................................................... xi LIST OF ACRONYMS .............................................................................................................................................. xii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION ............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................................................. 1 1.3 OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................................................... 2 1.4 JUSTIFICATION ............................................................................................................................................... 2 1.4 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................................. 2 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................ 3 2.1 ENERGY ........................................................................................................................................................... 3 2.2 TYPES OF ENERGY SOURCES....................................................................................................................... 3 2.2.1 Renewable energy sources ........................................................................................................................... 3 2.2.2 Non renewable energy sources ..................................................................................................................... 4 2.2.3 Hybrid power systems .................................................................................................................................. 5 2.3 SOLAR ENERGY .............................................................................................................................................. 6 2.3.2 Solar Irradiance ............................................................................................................................................ 6 2.3.4 How electricity is generated through Solar Energy ....................................................................................... 8 2.3.5 Components of a photovoltaic system .......................................................................................................... 9 2.3.6 Merits of solar PV energy systems ............................................................................................................. 11 2.3.7 Demerits of solar PV energy systems ......................................................................................................... 12 2.3.8 Solar PV Applications .................................................................................................................................... 12 2.4 DIESEL GENERATOR- THE BACKUP SYSTEM ......................................................................................... 15 2.5 BIOGAS GENERATOR................................................................................................................................... 15 2.5.1 Production of biogas .................................................................................................................................. 16 2.5.2 Various Uses of Biogas .............................................................................................................................. 16 2.5.3 Merits and Demerits of Biogas ................................................................................................................... 16 CHAPTER THREE: SIMULATION OF HYBRID SYSTEMS .................................................................................. 18 3. 1 ENERGY MODELLING SOFTWARE FOR HYBRID RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS ....................... 18 3.2 USING HOMER .............................................................................................................................................. 18 3.2.1 What problem is HOMER going to solve? ................................................................................................. 18 3.2.2 Build the model.......................................................................................................................................... 18
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3.2.3 Enter Load details ...................................................................................................................................... 19 3.2.4 Enter individual component details ............................................................................................................ 20 3.2.5 Enter resource details ................................................................................................................................. 20 3.2.6 Check inputs and correct errors .................................................................................................................. 21 3.2.7 Examine the optimization results ................................................................................................................ 21 3.2.8 Refine the system design ............................................................................................................................ 22 3.2.9 Add sensitivity variables ............................................................................................................................ 22 3.2.10 Examine simulation analysis results ......................................................................................................... 23 CHAPTER FOUR: CASE STUDY- ST ANDREW PRIMARY SCHOOL MIGADDE. ............................................. 24 4.1 SITE IDENTIFICATION ................................................................................................................................. 24 4.2 DATA COLLECTED ....................................................................................................................................... 27 4.3 HYBRID DESIGN USING HOMER SOFTWARE .......................................................................................... 28 4.3.1 Solar radiation data .................................................................................................................................... 28 4.3.2 Analysis of the design results ..................................................................................................................... 29 4.3.3 Analysis of the PV Inputs........................................................................................................................... 31 4.3.4 Analysis of the Converter Inputs ................................................................................................................ 32 4.3.5 Analysis of the Battery inputs .................................................................................................................... 33 4.3.6 Analysis of Generator Inputs ...................................................................................................................... 34 4.3.7 Analysis of the Economic Inputs ................................................................................................................ 35 4.3.8 Detailed analysis of the Simulation Results ................................................................................................ 35 4.3.9 The Hybrid Power Systems Schematic Design ........................................................................................... 37 4.3.1.0 Payback Period ....................................................................................................................................... 38 4.4 THE GRID EXTENSION DESIGN .................................................................................................................. 40 4.4.1 The MV line design and costing ................................................................................................................. 40 4.4.2 LV line design and costing ......................................................................................................................... 44 4.4.3 Pole mounted substation............................................................................................................................. 44 4.4.4 Technical analysis of the grid extension design .......................................................................................... 47 4.4.5 Payback Period (PBP) ................................................................................................................................ 47 4.5 COMPARING THE HYBRID SYSTEM AND GRID EXTENSION................................................................ 48 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................................... 49 5.1 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................................ 49 5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................................................. 50 References .................................................................................................................................................................. 51 Appendix 1: Load data ............................................................................................................................................... 53 Appendix II: Load Forecast ........................................................................................................................................ 54 Appendix III: MV Line design costs ........................................................................................................................... 56 Appendix IV: LV line design costs ............................................................................................................................. 57 Appendix V: Pole mounted substation costs ............................................................................................................... 58 Appendix VI: Homer extracts ..................................................................................................................................... 59
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Solar resource: ........................................................................................................................................................ 59 Diesel inputs ........................................................................................................................................................... 60

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Summary of the different categories of energy Figure 2: Solar Irradiance Figure 3: Pictorial representation of the Inverse Square Law Figure 4: Solar Irradiance Vs Time of Day Figure 5: Pictorial representation of how electricity is generated through solar Figure 6: Solar panels on top of house. Figure 7: Solar panels on a telecom mast Figure 8: Solar panels on a space satellite Figure 9: solar panel used to aid in water pumping Figure 10: Google Mountain View, California Headquarters with Solar panels of 1.6MW capacity Figure 11: A 25MW PV power plant in Florida, United States of America Figure 12: The Biogas process Figure 13: Pictorial representation of the Biogas plant Figure 14: Equipment to consider Figure 15: Primary Load Inputs Figure 16: PV input component details Figure 17: Solar Resource data Figure 18: Optimization results Figure 19: Diesel price sensitivities Figure 20: Electrical specifications Figure 21: The administration section Figure 22: Classroom room block one Figure 23: Class room block two Figure 24: Snapshot of the optimization results obtained from the simulation Figure 25: Snapshot of the optimization results obtained from the simulation Figure 26: A snapshot showing the PV inputs Figure 27: A snapshot showing the converter inputs
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6 7 7 8 8 12 13 13 14 14 14 16 17 19 19 20 21 22 23 23 25 26 26 29 30 31 32

Figure 28: A snapshot showing the generator inputs Figure 29: A snapshot of Economic Inputs Figure 30: Snapshot of simulation cost summary Figure 31: Snapshot of electrical analysis of simulation results Figure 32: Snapshot of the hybrid power system connection Figure 33: The nearest grid point Figure 34: A typical intermediate pole and its accessories Figure 35: A typical section pole and its accessories Figure 36: A pole mounted substation

34 35 36 37 38 40 41 42 46

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Components of Biogas .................................................................................................................................. 15 Table 2: Load data obtained from St. Andrews Primary School Church of Uganda ..................................................... 27 Table 3: The annual solar radiation data ..................................................................................................................... 28 Table 4: Cost distribution for the hybrid power supply ............................................................................................... 38 Table 5: Summary of section pole accessories and their quantities .............................................................................. 42 Table 6: Summary of intermediate pole accessories and their quantities ..................................................................... 43 Table 7: Stay types and their quantities ....................................................................................................................... 43 Table 8: Summary of stay accessories and their quantities .......................................................................................... 43 Table 9: LV line design accessories and their quantities ............................................................................................. 44 Table 10: Pole mounted substation accessories and their quantities ............................................................................. 45 Table 11: Technical specifications of ACSR used for the 11kVand 415/240V lines .................................................... 47 Table 12: Summary of the costs of the hybrid design and grid extension design ......................................................... 48

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LIST OF ACRONYMS
A ....................................................................Ampere AC............................................................. ....Alternating Current ACSR..............................................................Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced Ah.............................................................. ....Ampere hours COE................................................................Cost Of Energy CoU.................................................................Church of Uganda 2 ............................................................. ....Carbon dioxide ............................................................ ..Cosine theta DC............................................................... ..Direct Current DVD...............................................................Digital Versatile Disc E.................................................................. ..Solar Irradiance .................................................................Direct Irradiance GW.................................................................Giga Watt H................................................................... .Solar Irradiation HOMER........................................................ Hybrid OptimizationModel for Electric Renewables ....................................................................Short Circuit Current J...................................................................... .Joules KM...................................................................Kilo metre kWh................................................................ Kilo watt hour /2 /................................................Kilo watt hour per metre squared per day LEDs.............................................................. .Light Emitting Diodes /2 ............................................................ .Lumens per meter squared LV....................................................................Low Voltage ..................................................................... Lux MCBs.............................................................. Minature Circuit Breakers /3 ............................................................Mega Joules per meter cubed /................................................................. meters per second /................................................................miles per second MV...................................................................Mega Voltage MW................................................................. .Mega Watts NASA..............................................................National Aeronautics and Space Adminstration NPC.................................................................Net Present Costs O&M................................................................Operation and Maintenance
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PV....................................................................Photovoltaics Swg..................................................................Swing Tx.....................................................................Transformer T.V...................................................................Television UEDCL............................................................ Uganda Electricity Distribution Company Limited UGX.................................................................Uganda Shillings UPE...................................................................Universal Primary Education UPS...................................................................Uninterruptible Power Supply V........................................................................Voltage Wh.................................................................... Watt hour /2 .............................................................. Watts per meter squared /2 .............................................................Watt hour per meter squared PBP..................................................................Pay Back Period

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION One in every five people on the planet does not have access to electricity. In Sub-Saharan Africa some 70 percent of the population has no electricity. Ugandas electricity access was 9% compared to Kenya (15%) and Tanzania (11.5%) in 2008. The access in the urban areas in Uganda was 39% compared to 3% in the rural areas where 88% of the population lives. The International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that 1.4 billion people will still lack access to electricity in 2030 unless new approaches and policies are adopted to adapt electrification programmes to local contexts and national environments. Inaccessibility to electricity has slowed down socio-economic development and has led to a high dependence on wood fuel. 97% of Ugandan households depend on wood fuel and this has led to loss of forest cover whose annual cost is estimated at US $3-6 million. The Government of Uganda (GoU), recognizing the importance of electricity in improving the welfare of its people and saving the environment, implemented structural reforms which were in line with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP).The Rural Electrification Agency (REA) was established to spear head the implementation of the rural electrification programmes which were aimed at ensuring equitable regional distribution of electricity and increasing rural electricity access from 1% in 1999 to 10% by the year 2012. Despite the substantial investment in rural electrification by the Government and various development partners, access to electricity continues to be low and the majority of the population continues to live in the dark.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT Rural communities are generally characterized by small loads and low income earners. With many energy utility companies primarily focusing on the return on investment, rural areas have been left on the sidelines based on the fact that they cannot afford to pay for this service. Most rural communities can successfully be able to meet this challenge through access to information regarding the cost of grid extension projects. Having this knowledge will propel them to work around a technique of footing the energy bills on a timely basis. Considering the set back of expenses, a better way to power rural communities is via hybrid systems. Renewable resources such as solar are used to generate electricity and have been recommended widely based on their high efficiency. The rural communities can then come up with procedures on how to manage the hybrid systems. Since most financial information regarding grid extension and setting up of hybrid systems is not readily available, this study is aimed at providing the financial results obtained on assessment of both the grid extension and the design of a hybrid system to the administrators of St Andrew Primary School Migadde so as they can be able to have a clear picture of the cost implications they will incur upon choosing any of the two alternatives.

1.3 OBJECTIVES a) To identify a rural area that has no electricity. b) To Design the most suitable hybrid power system for the selected area. c) To Cost the grid extension project to that rural area. d) To compare the relative costs of the hybrid system with grid extension.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION i. The pupils of St Andrews Primary School need electricity to enable them extend their learning hours. ii. The teaching staff will be able to diversify their teaching methods by using radios and Televisions which will motivate pupils to learn and gradually increase pupil population in the school. iii. Rural areas are characterized by small loads and are located far away from the grid points thus energy utility companies do not prioritize these areas. iv. The use of renewable energy avoids the use of expensive fuels, allows for the cleaner generation of electrical power and is more sustainable in the long run. v. Solar systems are already in use in some rural areas and this has improved the standards of living through the provision of better health care, clean water, education, etc.

1.4 METHODOLOGY a) Literature review of the subject matter. b) Learn the operation of HOMER V2.O. c) Site visit to identify the loads needed. d) Data analysis and design of the hybrid system e) Comparison of the relative costs of the designed system with grid extension.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 ENERGY Energy is the ability to do work. It is measured in joules(J) or watt-hours(Wh) Over the centuries, various sources of energy have been used by man in order to meet his basic life-essentials such as food, water and shelter. Fossil fuels provide the bulk of the worlds primary energy (i.e.: 77% fossil fuels, 18% renewable and 5% nuclear power), thus the world, is seeking new energy alternatives to fossil fuels. To that effect, experts believe that crude oil, providing at present more than one-third of the world energy needs will gradually lose its supremacy and recourse to other energy will become necessary as it becomes scarcer.

2.2 TYPES OF ENERGY SOURCES

There are broadly two types of energy sources namely; Renewable energy sources and Non- renewable energy sources.

2.2.1 Renewable energy sources Renewable energy is energy which is generated from natural sources i.e. sun, wind, rain, tides and can be generated again and again as and when required. They are available in plenty and by far most the cleanest sources of energy available on this planet. For example, energy that we receive from the sun can be used to generate electricity. Similarly, energy from wind, geothermal, biomass from plants, tides can be used. These are also known as non-conventional or sustainable energy resources. Examples of renewable energy sources include; solar, biomass, hydro (water), tidal, wind and geothermal. Renewable energy systems use these resources to generate electricity. The pros and cons of renewable energy are summarized below; Pros

The sun, wind, geothermal, ocean energy are available in the abundant quantity and free to use. The non-renewable sources of energy that we are using are limited and are bound to expire one day. Renewable sources have low carbon emissions, therefore they are considered as green and environment friendly.

Renewable helps in stimulating the economy and creating job opportunities. The money that is used to build these plants can provide jobs to thousands of people.

Renewable sources can cost less than consuming the local electrical supply. In the long run, the prices of electricity are expected to soar since they are based on the prices of crude oil, so renewable sources can cut your electricity bills.
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Various tax incentives in the form of tax waivers, credit deductions are available for individuals and businesses who want to go green.

Cons

It is not easy to set up a plant as the initial costs are quite steep. Solar energy can be used during the day time and not during night or rainy season. Geothermal energy which can be used to generate electricity has side effects too. It can bring toxic chemicals beneath the earth surface onto the top and can create environmental changes.

Hydroelectric provide pure form of energy but building dams across the river which is quite expensive can affect natural flow and affect wildlife.

To use wind energy, you have to rely on strong winds therefore you have to choose suitable site to operate them. Also, they can affect bird population as they are quite high

2.2.2 Non renewable energy sources Non-Renewable energy is energy which is taken from the sources that are available on the earth in limited quantity and will vanish fifty-sixty years from now. Non-renewable sources are not environmental friendly and can have serious affect on our health. They are called non-renewable because they cannot be re-generated within a short span of time. Non-renewable sources exist in the form of fossil fuels, natural gas, oil and coal. Here are some of the pros and cons of using non-renewable sources of energy:Pros

Non-renewable sources are cheap and easy to use. You can easily fill up your car tank and power your motor vehicle.

You can use small amount of nuclear energy to produce large amount of power. Non-renewable have little or no competition at all. For eg: if you are driving a battery driven car your battery gets discharged then you won't be able to charge it in the middle if the road rather it is easy to find a gas pumping station.

They are considered as cheap when converting from one type of energy to another.

Cons

Non-renewable sources will expire some day and we have to us our endangered resources to create more nonrenewable sources of energy.

The speed at which such resources are being utilized can have serious environmental changes. Non-renewable sources release toxic gases in the air when burnt which are the major cause for global warming.
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Since these sources are going to expire soon, prices of these sources are soaring day by day.

2.2.3 Hybrid power systems These are generally systems that are independent of large centralized electric grids and can be a good solution to remote areas. Hybrid systems consists of a number of power generation devices such as wind turbines, photovoltaic systems, micro-hydro fossil fuel generators etc. hybrid systems range from small systems designed for one or several homes to very large ones for remote island grids or large communities. These systems are an avenue of providing power to the many remote communities in the developing world where the costs for large scale expansion of electricity grids are economically unfeasible. In this study, a hybrid system consisting of solar PV and diesel generator as a backup option is considered. Hybrid power systems have a wide range of merits and demerits that are given below; Merits of hybrid power systems 1. The installation is simple, quick and low cost 2. The system has simple operation, low maintenance and service requirements 3. The system does not solely rely on a single source of energy 4. The system is flexible, expandable and able to meet future growth 5. They provide dependable utility grade 24 hour AC OR DC power

Demerits of hybrid power systems 1. Its more complex than single source stand alone power systems 2. They require battery storage and power conditioning 3. They have high initial capital costs compared to diesel generators

Figure 1: Summary of the different categories of energy

2.3 SOLAR ENERGY

The sun is made up of about 80% hydrogen, 20%helium and only 0.1% other elements. Its radiant energy comes from nuclear fusion processes during which the sun loses 4.3 million tones of mass each second. This mass is converted into radiant energy. Each square meter of the suns surface emits a radiant power of 63.1 MW, which means that just a fifth of the square kilometer of the suns surface emits an amount of energy equal to the global primary energy demand on earth. Fortunately, only a small part of this energy reaches the earths surface. Solar irradiance decreases with the square of the distance to the sun. Since the distance of the earth to the sun changes during the year, solar irradiance outside the earths atmosphere also varies from 1325W/m2 and 1420 W/m2. The annual mean solar irradiance is known as the solar constant and is 13672 W/m2.

2.3.2 Solar Irradiance Solar irradiance is the power of solar radiation per unit area. Solar irradiance is commonly expressed in units of watts per square meter (W/m2) or kilowatts per square meter (kW/m2). Irradiance is measured with respect to area as if the solar radiation is striking an imaginary unit surface. For example, the speed (rate of travel) of an object is also an instantaneous value.

Figure 2: Solar Irradiance

Solar irradiance varies slightly as the sun goes through normal cycles of maximum and minimum activity. However, distance from the sun has a much greater effect. The inverse square law is a physical law that states that the amount of radiation is proportional to the inverse of the square of the distance from the source. This means that at twice the distance of Earth to the sun, solar radiation is only one-fourth the amount on Earth. Likewise, moving three times the distance away from a light source decreases the intensity by a factor of nine. This law is used to calculate the irradiance at different locations in the solar system.

Figure 3: Pictorial representation of the Inverse Square Law

At the surface of Earth, the magnitude of solar irradiance changes throughout the day. It begins at zero during nighttime, increases as the sun rises, peaks around noon, and decreases as the sun sets. In a plot of solar irradiance versus time, solar irradiation equals the area under the irradiance curve.

Figure 4: Solar Irradiance Vs Time of Day

Solar radiation is absorbed, scattered, and reflected by components of the atmosphere, including ozone, carbon dioxide, and water vapor, as well as other gases and particles. Cloud cover and local conditions such as dust storms, air pollution, and volcanic eruptions can also greatly reduce the amount of radiation reaching the surface of Earth.

2.3.4 How electricity is generated through Solar Energy

Figure 5: Pictorial representation of how electricity is generated through solar

The Process
Sunlight is made of photons, small particles of energy. These photons are absorbed by and pass through the material of a solar cell or solar PV panel. The photons 'agitate' the electrons found in the material of the photovoltaic cell. As they begin to move (or are dislodged), these are 'routed' into a current. This, technically, is electricity - the movement of electrons along a path. 8

Advantages of PV solar energy

Solar electric systems consume no fuel. Solar modules convert freely available solar energy into electricity without being used up. They produce electricity quietly, without giving off exhaust gases or other pollutants Compared to conventional generators, solar electric systems require very little maintenance. Solar modules have no moving parts last over 20 years. Solar electric systems are economical for many small applications. While the price of oil has steadily risen over the past few years, the price of solar cells has been falling. Costly maintenance fees of electric lines in the areas of difficult access can be avoided in using this technology Properly installed solar electric systems are safe. Risk of electric shock is small because of low system voltage. Use of PV solar energy eliminates ecological and aesthetic costs of installing grid lines

Disadvantages of PV solar energy

The initial cost of solar electric systems is relatively high by rural standards. Solar electric systems require batteries fro storage. These batteries must be carefully maintained hence more maintenance costs Appliances such as lamps, which run on low voltages, are not readily available as those that run on mains power There is lack of trained technicians to design and install solar electric systems. It can generate only small amounts of energy. It is economically unviable to use it to power heavy consumers such as industries.

2.3.5 Components of a photovoltaic system A photovoltaic installation is typically made up of the following components; a. Solar cell module (panel) A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect. Solar cells produce direct current (DC) power, which fluctuates with the intensity of the irradiated light. This usually requires conversion to certain desired voltages or alternating current (AC), which requires the use of the inverters. Multiple solar cells are connected inside the modules. Modules are wired together to form arrays, then tied to inverter, which produces power with the desired voltage, and frequency/phase (when its AC). b. Charge controller (regulator) A solar regulator is a small box consisting of solid state circuitry which is placed between a solar panel and a battery. Its function is to regulate the amount of charge coming from the panel that flows into the deep cycle battery bank in order to avoid the batteries being overcharged. A regulator can also provide a direct connection to appliances, while continuing to recharge the battery; i.e. you can run appliances directly from it, bypassing the battery bank; but the batteries will continue to be charged.

Modern solar regulators are very efficient and will outperform just about any 3 stage mains power battery charger. The charge controllers have fuses or miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) which are used to protect the major circuits in the system from short circuits. Also contained in the charge controller is a blocking diode which prevents current from flowing from batteries to the solar cell module when the battery voltage is higher than the module voltage (i.e. at night when all the modules are not producing current). Main circuit switches may also be incorporated in cases where it is necessary to control certain loads from centrally located control panel. Charge controllers also inform the user whether the system is working properly. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), beepers or alarms come to play for this cause. c. Inverters Inverters convert DC power from batteries or solar array into AC power, which power can be as a square wave, modified sine wave and a sine wave power. The two main types of inverters are the transformer base types and highfrequency switching types. The use of inverters in photovoltaic installations is optional and therefore depending on choice, AC or DC loads can be used. Currently, it is more expensive to connect DC loads because being fewer on the market, they are more expensive. Note should also be taken of the fact that due to the adverse effects of a voltage drop in DC installations, cables used are of a large diameter and thus more expensive to purchase Unless you plan on using battery power for everything, you will need a Power Inverter. Since the majority of modern conveniences all run on 240 volts AC, the Power Inverter will be the heart of your Solar Energy System. It not only converts the low voltage DC to the 240 volts AC that runs most appliances, but also can charge the batteries if connected to the utility grid or a AC Generator as in the case of a totally independent stand-alone solar power system. d. Batteries Batteries are groups of electrochemical cells (devices that convert chemical energy into electrical energy) connected in series. The cells are composed of two electrodes (plates) immersed in electrolyte solution which produce an electric current when a circuit is formed between them. The current is caused by reversible chemical reactions between the electrodes and the electrolyte with the cell. Some cells can only be used once (dry cells) while others can be recharged over and over again (accumulators or secondary batteries). These two most common types of secondary battery systems are lead-acid and nickel-cadmium (NiCad) batteries. There are many types of lead-acid batteries which fall into two categories i.e. deep discharge and shallow discharge. The deep discharge batteries are preferred for solar electric systems because more energy can be taken out of them than from shallow discharge batteries without causing damage to the cells. The amount of energy that a battery can store is called its capacity and this is measured in amp hours (Ah). This indicates the amount of energy that can be drawn from the battery before it can be completely discharged. The capacity of the battery changes with batterys age and conditions and the rate at which power is drawn from it. if current is drawn from the battery at a high rate, its capacity is reduced. Batteries can be charged by solar cell modules, by mains power connected to a battery charger, or by diesel, petrol or automobile engines attached to a properly sized generator. The electric current supplied to and stored in a battery to store in a battery is known as the charging current and it should be noted that a battery should not be charged at a current that is higher the one-tenth of their rated capacity. Charging batteries at too high a current causes the electrolyte level to fall quickly due to gassing and the cells may be
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damaged. On the other hand, to discharge a battery is to have its energy being used by a load and the discharge current is the rate at which current is being drawn from the battery. The state of discharge of the battery is measure of the energy remaining in the battery and this can be measured using a hydrometer or voltmeter. When fully charged, the state of state of charge (SoC) of the battery is 100% and when the battery has one quarter of its capacity removed, its state of charge is 75%. In regards to the cycle, cycle life and depth of discharge of a battery, a cycle is the period of charging a battery by a solar cell module plus the period of discharging a battery by a load. The cycle life of a battery is the number of cycles a battery is expected to last and this is usually thousands of cycles. The rated cycle life of a battery is the number of cycles expected to last before its capacity drops to 80% of its original rated capacity (specified by manufacturer). Depth of discharge is the indication of how much a battery is to be discharged in a cycle before it is charged again. A shallow cycle battery should not be discharged below 80% state of charge and a deep

Sizing of batteries Using the equation below we can obtain the number of batteries if the total battery capacity or the capacity of one battery is known. = Where: B= Battery capacity in Ah N= number of days of storage = daily energy consumption in Wh/day = overall efficiency = depth of discharge V= battery voltage

2.3.6 Merits of solar PV energy systems

1. Solar electric systems can be tailored to power the needs of individual applications like tiny electric calculators, to small radios, televisions, lights etc. 2. Solar electric systems can be expanded or modified easily by adding more modules and batteries to suit new power demand 3. They consume no fuel hence do not give off exhaust gases that lead to global warming 4. Compared to conventional generators, solar electric systems require very little maintenance. They can last for over 20 years.
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5. They are economical for many small applications. While the price of oil has steadily risen over the past few years, the price of solar cells has been falling. Costly maintenance fees of electric power lines remote areas can be avoided by using solar PV systems. 6. Properly installed solar PV systems are safe and the risk of electric shock is minimal because of the low system voltage 7. Use of solar PV energy eliminates ecological and aesthetic costs of installing grid lines

2.3.7 Demerits of solar PV energy systems

1. The initial cost of solar electric systems is relatively high by rural standards. Solar electric systems require batteries for storage which if not carefully maintained can lead to incurring more costs. 2. Appliances and lamps that run on low voltages are not readily available as those that run on mains power. 3. There is lack of trained technicians to design and install solar electric systems 4. It can generate only small amounts of energy. It is economically unviable for use by heavy consumers

2.3.8 Solar PV Applications Solar PV finds application in various fields which include the following; i. Solar home systems Solar panels are installed on homes to charge batteries that power homes at night and during winter seasons.

Figure 6: Solar panels on top of house.

ii. Telecom towers Telecom companies install solar panels on their masts as a backup option to utility electricity supply.

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Figure 7: Solar panels on a telecom mast

iii. Space satellites Space satellites are installed with solar panel that provide the electric power to suuport the various electronic hardware the satellite uses for its communication.

Figure 8: Solar panels on a space satellite

iv. Water pumping Solar Panel(s) are used to operate a pump to water livestock or provide water of a garden or green house in locations where power is not available.

13

Figure 9: solar panel used to aid in water pumping

v. Commercial building systems Commercial buildings install solar panels as a backup to utility power supply and also as an environmental awareness campaign for promoting the use cleaner energy.

Figure 10: Google Mountain View, California Headquarters with Solar panels of 1.6MW capacity

vi. PV power plants Solar PV power plants generate large amounts of electric power used to power large communities.

Figure 11: A 25MW PV power plant in Florida, United States of America 14

2.4 DIESEL GENERATOR- THE BACKUP SYSTEM Generator is a machine which converts Mechanical energy to Electrical energy. A generator consists of the following components; i. Prime Mover This is source of mechanical power for relative motion. The prime mover for a diesel generator is low speed class mover which is a diesel engine. Ideally, the prime mover is capable of supplying any power demand up to the rated power at constant frequency and the synchronous generator connected to it must be able to keep the voltage constant at any load condition. Rotor A diesel generator uses a salient pole rotor. iii. Stator There are many types based on; - Power out put - Voltage output - Type of cooling - Number of phases The diesel engine keeps the frequency constant by maintaining the rotor speed constant via its governor. The synchronous generator must control its output voltage by controlling the excitation current. Thus as a unit, the diesel generating system must be able to control its frequency and its output voltage.

ii.

2.5 BIOGAS GENERATOR Biogas is a combustible gas produced by anaerobic fermentation of organic materials by the action of methanogenic bacteria. This gas is principally composed of methane and carbon dioxide. The approximate composition of biogas is given below; Table 1: Components of Biogas
SUBSTANCE Methane Carbon dioxide Hydrogen Nitrogen Water Vapor Hydrogen Sulphide PERCENTAGE 50-70 30-40 5-10 1-2 0.3 Traces 15

2.5.1 Production of biogas The basic process of biogas production is as shown below. Biogas is produced by methane producing micro-organisms which digest cellulose and other organic content in animal and plant wastes in a continuous process that occurs at suitable temperatures of 28-350C or 50-700C. Biogas has a generally accepted mean calorific value of about 20 MJ/m3 and It also has a fixed Hydraulic Retention Time or Retention Time(HRT), which is the amount of time the organic matter requires to be sufficiently digested so as to remove most pathogen content and odors. The retention time using cattle manure has been estimated at 55 days. It becomes obvious, therefore, that the amount of gas produced is directly dependent on the size and capacity of the tank and the amount of feed material it can digest.

Figure 12: The Biogas process 2.5.2 Various Uses of Biogas Like any other fuel, biogas can be used for household and industrial purposes. The possible uses of biogas as an energy source include; 1) Electricity generation 2) Cooking 3) Lighting 4) Refrigeration

2.5.3 Merits and Demerits of Biogas

Like any other equipments, biogas plant has both merits and demerits. The merits and demerits identified so far are described below: Merits of biogas 1. As biogas plant utilizes locally available raw materials, the gas obtained from it can be cheaper and reliable.
16

2. Cattle dung which is used as a raw material in biogas plant is digested during gas production and the digested slurry comes out from the outlet as a by-product. Thus, biogas replaces the dung cake which otherwise is being used as a fuel for cooking and produces digested slurry that can be used as a manure in the field. 3. Use of biogas saves time as it is very easy to ignite biogas compared to burning firewood. 4. Biogas helps to improve health of the community as it is smokeless thereby reducing on instances of respiratory diseases. 5. Biogas is environmentally friendly as it does not emit any green house gasses.

Demerits of biogas 1. Biogas requires daily feeding for smooth operation. Most users consider it as an extra burden. 2. Feeding the biogas requires mixing of the waste with water in equal proportion. The larger the biogas, the greater the amount of waste as well as the water required. Collecting water is a problem if its source is not available or nearby. Because of this, biogas installation is not recommended if the source of water is farther than 20 minutes walking distance 3. In many biogas survey carried out by different organizations, it is found that there is an increase in the population of mosquitoes due to the installation of biogas plants.

Figure 13: Pictorial representation of the Biogas plant

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CHAPTER THREE: SIMULATION OF HYBRID SYSTEMS

3. 1 ENERGY MODELLING SOFTWARE FOR HYBRID RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS The HOMER (Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewables) energy modeling software is a powerful tool for designing and analyzing hybrid power systems, which contain a mix of conventional generators, combined heat and power, wind turbines, solar photovoltaics, batteries, fuel cells, hydropower, biomass and other inputs. It is currently used all over the world by tens of thousands of people. For either grid-tied or off-grid environments, HOMER helps determine how variable resources such as wind and solar can be optimally integrated into hybrid systems. HOMER is used to run simulations of different energy systems compare the results and get a realistic projection of their capital and operating expenses. HOMER determines the economic feasibility of a hybrid energy system, optimizes the system design and allows users to really understand how hybrid renewable systems work.

3.2 USING HOMER The following steps serve as a launch pad for using HOMER.
3.2.1 What problem is HOMER going to solve?

Have a clear idea of the problem that HOMER is going to solve as this is the primary aim for using HOMER.
3.2.2 Build the model

The model represents all of the options that HOMER should consider. HOMER displays a dialog box that displays the loads and components that can be selected from when designing the model.

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Figure 14: Equipment to consider

3.2.3 Enter Load details

The load details are inputs to the HOMER simulations and these describe the electric demand that the system designed must serve. HOMER displays the daily load profile in the table and graph format.

Figure 15: Primary Load Inputs

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3.2.4 Enter individual component details

The individual component inputs include; component costs, the sizes to consider and the numbers of each components that HOMER will use for simulations.

Figure 16: PV input component details

3.2.5 Enter resource details

The resource inputs describe the daily solar radiation for each month of the year, the diesel price per litre and the available biomass in tones per day for the whole year. For solar data, one can import data from the Internet.

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Figure 17: Solar Resource data

3.2.6 Check inputs and correct errors

HOMER checks many of the values that were entered in the input windows to see if they make technical sense. If HOMER notices values do not make sense, it displays warning and error messages on the main window.

3.2.7 Examine the optimization results

HOMER simulates system configurations with all of the combinations of components that were specified in the component inputs. HOMER discards from the results all infeasible system configurations, which are those that do not adequately meet the load given.

The feasible system configurations are listed in order (from top to bottom) of most cost effective to least cost effective. The cost effectiveness of a system configuration is based on its net present cost, displayed under the heading Total NPC in the results tables. In the simulations window, one can view many technical and economic details about each system configuration that HOMER simulates.
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Figure 18: Optimization results

3.2.8 Refine the system design

Here, the optimization results are used to improve the system design. For example one can add more sizes of PV to see if it will reduce the amount of excess energy produced by the system.
3.2.9 Add sensitivity variables

Enter sensitivity values to perform sensitivity analysis on these variables. This analysis enable one to explore how variations for instance in the diesel prices affect the optimal design. HOMER runs an independent simulation for each sensitivity variable added.

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Figure 19: Diesel price sensitivities

3.2.10 Examine simulation analysis results

HOMER displays simulation results in graphs and tables from where an easy interpretation can be made. These results explain under what conditions a hybrid system (e.g. PV and Diesel) is more cost effective than a standalone system (e.g. PV only).

Figure 20: Electrical specifications

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CHAPTER FOUR: CASE STUDY- ST ANDREW PRIMARY SCHOOL MIGADDE.

4.1 SITE IDENTIFICATION The area case study chosen was St. Andrews Primary School Church of Uganda, Migadde which is located in Bombo, about 25Km along Bombo road. The school is about 4Km from the main road (Bombo road). The school currently only offers day classes and the classes offered range from primary one to primary seven. Primary one has three streams while the remaining classes are single streamed. The school has an administration section that consists of two rooms; one being the staff room while the other being the headmasters office. The population of the school is about 300 pupils from primary one to primary seven. The school currently has no access to electric power. The site was chosen because;
iv. There is a need to add a boarding section to the school especially allow the candidates (primary seven pupils) to have more hours of study and interaction with their teachers so as to enhance better performance. This will mean a need for energy to provide lighting and other necessary services. v. vi. vii. The school serves a very large community of Migadde village, which qualifies it as a social service centre. The school has no access to electric power The school is about 4Km from the nearest grid point.

Also, Migadde village is a growing and developing village but has no access to electric power. Therefore provision of power will boost and enhance further development of the village as a whole.

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Figure 21: The administration section

25

Figure 22: Classroom room block one

Figure 23: Class room block two

26

4.2 DATA COLLECTED Below is a table showing a summary of the load data collected from the area. The data includes the various devices in use or to be used, their individual power ratings, the quantities of each type of device, the utilization hours per day of each device and the total energy consumption per day for each type of device.

Table 2: Load data obtained from St. Andrews Primary School Church of Uganda
Device Power (W) Number of devices Utilization hours per day Total energy consumed in a day (Wh) 990 880 48000 1080 1080 4000 2160 4104 3588 2200 200 105 67,307

T.V Radio Desktop Computer Printer Photocopying Machine Water Heater Phone Charging Indoor Lights Outdoor Security Lights Flat Iron Electric Fan DVD Player TOTAL

90 40 400 120 120 2000 24 18 23 1100 50 35

1 2 10 1 1 1 10 19 13 2 1 1

11 11 12 9 9 2 9 12 12 1 4 3

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4.3 HYBRID DESIGN USING HOMER SOFTWARE

4.3.1 Solar radiation data

By inserting the coordinates or the region into homer software, the solar radiation data was obtained online from NASA centre. The table is shown is shown below;

Table 3: The annual solar radiation data

Clearness Index Month Daily Radiation kWh/m2/d 0.520 0.527 0.505 0.470 0.488 0.541 0.545 0.545 0.549 0.526 0.512 0.536 5.213 5.460 5.308 4.799 4.727 5.050 5.160 5.416 5.669 5.439 5.157 5.288

January Febraury March April May June July August September October November December

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4.3.2 Analysis of the design results

The hybrid power system which comprises of PV system and Diesel Generator as the backup was designed using the tool HOMER V2.68. The data required in the simulation tool was entered into the program and the results are discussed below. The system designed consists of a photovoltaic system used to produce 20kW of power, which is 80% of the total power and stand by diesel generator which produces 5 kW of power, which is 20% of the total power. Below is a homer file showing the results of the simulation of the input data. Highlighted is the chosen system design to be discussed in this study. The simulation results indicate the various costs of the system, the model design, the resources used, the load data and the economics of the design.

Figure 24: Snapshot of the optimization results obtained from the simulation

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Figure 25: Snapshot of the optimization results obtained from the simulation

From the figure above, there are four hybrid systems as a result of the simulation. However, only one of the systems (selected) meets the objectives of this project, that is it includes solar and diesel as back up. The system is analyzed as shown below. The system includes;
20kW PV system A 5 kW generator consuming 2,965 liters of diesel per year and running for 2,784 hours per year. Twenty four Surrette 4KS25P batteries A 10 kW converter

The costs of the hybrid system represented above include; Total Capital Costs = $81,450 Total Net Present Cost = $57,362 Manipulation of these costs gives the most important result which is the unit cost of energy of this hybrid system which is 0.491$/kWh

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4.3.3 Analysis of the PV Inputs

Figure 26: A snapshot showing the PV inputs

From the figure above, the PV system used in the design is of capacity 20kW. The PV system used is hoped to last 20years and has no tracking system to follow the direction of the sun. The costs involved include;
Capital costs = $3500 Replacement costs = $3500 O&M costs = 1 $/yr

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4.3.4 Analysis of the Converter Inputs

The converter inputs are shown below with the converter being of capacity 10 kW and its expected to last a minimum of 15 years.

The costs involved include;

Capital costs = $500 Replacement costs = $500 O&M costs = 1 $/yr

Figure 27: A snapshot showing the converter inputs

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4.3.5 Analysis of the Battery inputs

The Battery used in the design is a Surrette 4KS25P, with a lifetime of 15000 operating hours, capital costs of $200 and replacement costs of $200.

33

4.3.6 Analysis of Generator Inputs

The generator to be used in the design is expected to last a minimum of 1500 hours and is of capacity of 5 kW. The costs involved include;
Capital costs = $330 Replacement costs = $330 O&M costs = $0.012

Figure 28: A snapshot showing the generator inputs

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4.3.7 Analysis of the Economic Inputs

Figure 29: A snapshot of Economic Inputs In designing the hybrid power system, there was need to consider some economic aspects as show above and these include; a real interest rate of 6 %, the project life time of 5 years. The rest of the aspects were not relevant in this design although they are significant in other studies.

4.3.8 Detailed analysis of the Simulation Results

The technical and economic details examined in this section include;

Cost analysis Electrical details

Cost analysis The total initial capital cost of the entire architecture amounts to $57362 which covers the PV array, generator, battery bank and the converter.

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Figure 30: Snapshot of simulation cost summary

The annual O&M cost is $830 and the annual fuel cost is $18,985. The annual fuel costs are too high compared to the total annual 0&M costs. This is an indicator of one of the advantages of renewable energy over fossil fuels-O&M costs of renewable energy sources are low eventually leading to overall lower costs of renewable power systems in comparison to non-renewable systems.

Electrical energy analysis Represented above are details of the annual electrical energy production and the annual electric loads served. The annual total production is 37,872 kWh per year and the total load served is 27,726 kWh per year. It is noted that the energy produced exceeds the loads served by 10,146kWh per year. This is an indication that the designed system meets the requirements of catering for load growth in designing power systems. The renewable fraction representation by this design is 0.804 which is 80.4%. This is an important aspect of the design since it ensures and encourages promotion of renewable energy to cater for energy needs of our country.
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Figure 31: Snapshot of electrical analysis of simulation results

4.3.9 The Hybrid Power Systems Schematic Design

The schematic hybrid power system following the input resource and load details input into HOMER V 2.68 consists of; a diesel generator, converter, solar PV, S4KS25P battery bank and Primary load.

The components are connected as shown by a snapshot extracted from HOMER 2.68 shown below;
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Figure 32: Snapshot of the hybrid power system connection

4.3.1.0 Payback Period

Following the simulations using HOMER V2.68, the following cost distributions was obtained; Table 4: Cost distribution for the hybrid power supply
COST USD Initial cost of electricity Cost of electricity 81,450 0.483 per kWh AMOUNT UGX 200.448,450 1,188,663

Total power consumed per day = 72kWh

Total power consumed per year = 72kWh x 365 days = 26,280kWh

Total Revenue (TR) collected per year = 26,280kWh x UGX 1,188.663 per kWh = UGX 31,238,063.64 PBP (years) = (Initial Cost of Design)/(TR per year) = (200,448,450)/ (31,238,063.64)
38

 7 years This means that one is able to pay back their investment in a period of seven (7) years.

39

4.4 THE GRID EXTENSION DESIGN The grid extension design and costing was done in accordance to MV and LV grid extension standards adopted and used by UMEME in distribution line extension design and costing in Uganda. The nearest grid point is about 4km from the school and is at a voltage level of 11kV.

Figure 33: The nearest grid point The design of the grid extension to the school involved two types of line;
The MV line The LV line

4.4.1 The MV line design and costing

The MV line design involved the design of a distribution line extension at 11kV from the nearest grid point to the neighborhood of the school, i.e. extending the line for about 4 km. The considerations taken for the design include;
1) A pole span of 100m 2) One (1) lay pole, 32ft/10m 3) One (1) pole used as guy stay, 32ft/10m 4) One (1) pole for across the road support 5) Seven (7) section poles; Two terminal poles with six (6) polymeric insulators Three (3) section poles with each pole at the end of a kilometer each with six (6) polymeric insulators 40

Two (2) section poles at distributed locations each with six (6) polymeric insulators

6) Thirty four (34) intermediate poles each with three (3) pin insulators 7) One intermediate angle pole with three (3) pin angle insulators

Figure 34: A typical intermediate pole and its accessories

41

Figure 35: A typical section pole and its accessories The accessories for the intermediate and section poles and the quantity of each accessory indicated are shown in the tables below;

Table 5: Summary of section pole accessories and their quantities

Accessory Wood poles 35ft/11m Terminal cross arm Section cross arm Cross arm struts Polymeric insulators R70 Socket thimbles Terminating straps Preformed dead ends 50mmsq Bolts and nuts galvanized 3/4*12 Bolts and nuts galvanized 3/4*2 Curved washers 3/4 Flat washers 3/4 42 Quantity 7 1 5 12 36 36 36 36 12 12 24 24

Table 6: Summary of intermediate pole accessories and their quantities

Quantity Accessory Poles Intermediate cross arm Intermediate angle cross arm Cross arm struts Pin insulators Spindle Bolts and nuts galvanized *12 Bolts and nuts galvanized *2 Curved washers Flat washers 35 34 1 70 105 105 70 70 140 140

Stays A number of stay types were considered in the design; these are highlighted in the table below.

Table 7: Stay types and their quantities

Type Terminal Outrigger Line 4 Number 2 2

The stay accessories are summarized in the table below; Table 8: Summary of stay accessories and their quantities
Accessory Stay rod 7/8 swg Stay insulator 11kV Pole top make over for 7/8 swg Preformed wrap guy grips for 7/8 swg Kicking block (stub) Stay wire 7/8 swg Out trigger 43 Quantity 7 7 7 1 7 105m, 5m@ 2

4.4.2 LV line design and costing

This involves a short extension of a distribution line at 415V phase-to-phase and 240V phase-to-neutral. The purpose of the LV distribution line is to provide acceptable voltage levels for use in domestic and low power application. The LV line design involved a one span extension of 70 meters from the pole mounted substation. The other accessories used are summarized in the table below. Table 9: LV line design accessories and their quantities
Accessory Wooden poles, 10m Reel insulators Preformed dead ends, 50mmsq D-irons galvanized Bolts and nuts, 5/8*12" Bolts and nuts, 5/8*4" Conductor, ACSR 50mmsq pg clamps, 50mmsq Stay insulator LV Stay wire 7/12 swg Pole top make off swg, 7/12 Stay rod 7/12 galv. Pole caps Quantity 1 8 8 8 8 8 10 4 1 15 1 1 1

4.4.3 Pole mounted substation

This according to the design is to be situated in the neighborhood of the school premises between the LV and MV lines. Among the purposes served by the pole mounted substation include;

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Contains a step down transformer which steps down voltages from 11kV to 415/240V which are suitable for the domestic application and serve the specified load. Contains protective devices such as drop out fuses and Lucy cut out fuses which help interrupt fault currents

The pole mounted substation accessories and the respective quantities are summarized in the table . The detailed table showing the unit and total costs is included in the appendix. Table 10: Pole mounted substation accessories and their quantities
Accessory Pilot cross arm Pilot / Pin insulator R70 Pilot Spindles Isolator support Drop out isolator, 11Kv Drop out fuse links, 11kV Lay pole 30ft/10m Transformer platform Conductor ACSR (meters) Lucy cut outs 150A 50kVA 11kV/LV Transformer Surge diverters, 11kV Line taps Bolts and nuts galvanized *11 Bolts and nuts galvanized *2 Tx wiring 120 mm2 of copper wire Earth wire 103/3 Earth rod (copper) Quantity 1 3 3 1 3 3 1 1 18 3 1 3 3 4 4 20m 100m 13m 45

Figure 36: A pole mounted substation

The cost distribution for the grid extension is summarized in the table below;

Activity MV over head line design LV over head line design Pole mounted design Sub total cost-1 (stc-1)

Cost (UGX) 84,743,271.6 19,731,030 1,231,179 1,231,179

To account for miscellaneous costs such as labor, transport and costs of other minor accessories used, the Sub total cost-1 (atc-1) was increased by 30 percent. Miscellaneous costs (30% of stc-1) = 0.3* 1,231,179 = 31,711,644.18
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Sub total cost -2 (stc-2) {stc-1 + Miscellaneous costs} = 31,711,644.18 + 1,231,179 = 137,417,124.8

Therefore, overall total costs = stc-2 + Tax (18%) = 137,417,124.8 + 0.18*137,417,124.8 = UGX 162,152,207.3

4.4.4 Technical analysis of the grid extension design

The type of conductor used for both the MV and LV lines is Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR). Table 11: Technical specifications of ACSR used for the 11kVand 415/240V lines
Code Nominal Aluminum area. (mm2) Equivalent copper area (mm2 ) Maximum d.c resistance at 20 degrees (/km) Rabbit 50 32.3 0.5426 1.7 110 Voltage drop per amp per meter. (mv) Estimated current carrying capacity (A)

4.4.5 Payback Period (PBP)

The payback period was calculated from the following analysis; Total power consumed per day = 72kWh Total power consumed per year = 72kWh x 365 = 26,280kWh Cost of 1kWh = UGX542 (adapted from current rate) Total Revenue (TR) collected per year = 26,280kWh x 542 = UGX 14,243.7 PBP (years) = (Initial Cost of Design)/(TR per year) = (162,152,207.3)/ (14,243,760) 11 years and 4 months. Therefore, from the analysis, the payback period is about 11 years and 4 month.

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4.5 COMPARING THE HYBRID SYSTEM AND GRID EXTENSION The initial capital costs of the two systems are summarized in the table below; Table 12: Summary of the costs of the hybrid design and grid extension design
Design Cost (UGX)

Hybrid design

200,443,450

Grid extension design

162,152,207.3

Observation of the above results shows that the cost for hybrid design is higher than the cost for grid extension by; Saving = hybrid design cost grid extension design cost = 200,443,450 - 162,152,207.3 = UGX 38,291,242.7 Therefore, choosing to use grid extension as the means of delivering power to the school compared to using a hybrid system results to saving of UGX 38,291,242.7

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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION The main objective of the project was to come up with a suitable and cost effective source of electric power supply to the case study area which was chosen to be a primary school called St. Andrews Primary School Church of Uganda. The project carried out a load survey and considered electrifying the case study area first using hybrid system of solar PV system, biomass with diesel generator as backup and secondly, extending the grid to the school. The objective was to compare the costs of electrifying the school using the alternative sources of electric power and then come up with the cheapest and most cost effective. The total cost for hybrid power system was calculated to be UGX 200,448,450 and the cost of a unit of energy being UGX 1,188.6. The corresponding total costs for grid extension was calculated as UGX 162,152,207.3. The cost of a unit of energy is UGX 542. Clearly, it is evident that the cost of an hybrid power system exceeds the cost of grid extension by UGX 38,291,242.7. Therefore grid extension is the best alternative to supply power to St. Andrews Primary School Church of Uganda.

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5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS The analysis carried shows that grid extension the cheaper means of supplying power to the school. The overall cost of grid extension is UGX 162,152,207.3. However, the question is who is going to take care of this cost? Currently, the government through its body, Rural Electrification Authority, provides 70% of the total cost and the beneficiaries of the power provide the 30%. However, still the people who will benefit from the power cannot afford the 30% i.e. UGX 48645662.19. Therefore I urge the government to increase on the input in the rural electrification projects. I recommend that the process of carrying out the feasibility of rural electrification projects be carried out more extensively and even on a smaller scale so as increase on the speed of rural electrification I recommend that the rural electrification body, REA increase and expand its operations, for example by increasing the staff so that more and more areas are covered. This will speed up the rural electrification process.

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References
Bibliographic reference
1) http://www.scribd.com/doc/13632289/Basic-of-Generator 2) http://www.freesunpower.com/inverters.php 3) http://www.energymatters.com.au/renewable-energy/solar-regulator-controllers/ 4) http://www.solarpanelinfo.com/installation/ 5) http://www.squidoo.com/what-is-renewable-energy6) http://www.environmentabout.com/41/comparison-of-renewable-and-non-renewable-energy-resources 7) http://library.thinkquest.org/05aug/00281/english/mtopics/nonrenewable.htm 8) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy 9) United Nations Energy Conference, 2012 10) International Energy Agency, 2008 11) International Energy Agency, 2008 12) Uganda Population and Housing Census, 2002 13) National Environmental Management Authority, 2000

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APPENDIX

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Appendix 1: Load data

LOADS T.V RADIO DESKTOP COMPUTER PRINTER PHOTOCOPYING MACHINE WATER HEATER PHONE CHARGING INDOOR LIGHTS OUTDOOR SECURITY LIGHTS FLAT IRON ELECTRIC FAN DVD PLAYER TOTAL NUMBER 1 2 10 1 RATINGS (W) 90 40 400 120 TOTAL WATTAGE 90 80 4000 120

1 1 10 19

120 2000 24 18

120 2000 240 342

13 2 1 1

23 1100 50 35

299 2200 50 35 9576

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Appendix II: Load Forecast

Actual daily use of the household devices (hrs/day)

LOADS T.V RADIO DESKTOP COMPUTER PRINTER PHOTOCOPYING MACHINE WATER HEATER PHONE CHARGING INDOOR LIGHTS OUTDOOR SECURITY LIGHTS UPS FLAT IRON ELECTRIC FAN DVD PLAYER TOTAL

NUMBER OF HOURS ON 10 11 50 6 6 2 8 42 144 50 2 4 3 338

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55

Appendix III: MV Line design costs

ITEM DESCRIPTION TREATED WOODEN POLE 35ft/11m TREATED WOODEN POLE 32ft/10m TERMINAL CROSS ARM 7'4' SECTION CROSS ARM INTERMEDIATE CROSS ARM INTERMEDIATE ANGLE CROSS ARM CROSS ARM STRUTS PORCELAIN PIN INSULATOR R70 SPINDLES 400 LB POLYMERIC INSULATORS 11kV SOCKET THIMBLES TERMINATING STRAPS PREFORMED DEAD ENDS 50mmsq BOLTS AND NUTS GALVANISED 3/4*12'' BOLTS AND NUTS GALVANISED 3/4*2'' CURVED WASHERS 3/4'' FLAT WASHERS 3/4'' STAY ROD 7/8 swg STAY INSULATORS 11kV POLE TOP MAKE OFF 7/8 swg PREFORMED WRAP GUY GRIPS FOR 7/8 swg STAY WIRE 7/8 swg CONDUCTOR 50mmsq ACSR OUT TRIGGER POLE CAPS TOTAL 56 UNIT OF STOCK each each each each each each each each each each each each each each each Each Each Each Each Each Each metre metre Each Each QUANTITY 42 4 1 5 34 1 82 105 105 36 36 36 36 82 82 164 164 7 7 7 1 105 12000 2 44 RATE 439947.6 404671.2 324316.8 294894 233109.6 233109.6 35017.2 88713.6 45054 48336 33742.8 30609.6 5200.8 12258 7806 4150.8 4150.8 69828 5114.4 3240 19946.4 5245.2 2322 102208.8 30342 COST 18477799.2 1618684.8 324316.8 1474470 7925726.4 233109.6 2871410.4 9314928 4730670 1740096 1214740.8 1101945.6 187228.8 1005156 640092 680731.2 680731.2 488796 35800.8 22680 19946.4 550746 27864000 204417.6 1335048 84743271.6

Appendix IV: LV line design costs

ITEM DESCRIPTION UNIT OF STOCK QUANTITY RATE COST

WOODEN POLES, 10m REEL INSULATORS Preformed dead ends, 50mmsq D-IRONS GALVANIZED BOLTS AND NUTS, 5/8*12" BOLTS AND NUTS, 5/8*4" CONDUCTOR, ACSR 50mmsq Pg clamps, 50mmsq STAY INSULATOR LV STAY WIRE 7/12 swg POLE TOP MAKE OFF swg, 7/12 STAY ROD 7/12 GALV. POLE CAPS TOTAL

Each Each each each each each metre each each metre each each each

1 8 8 8 8 8 10 4 1 15 1 1 1

601477.5 4297.5 9438 11584.5 4702.5 4719 13531.5 14884.5 42120 2343 10062 39247.5 30342

601477.5 34380 75504 92676 37620 37752 135315 59538 42120 35145 10062 39247.5 30342 1231179

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Appendix V: Pole mounted substation costs

ACCESSORY H-POLE CROSS ARM PORCELAINE PIN INSULATOR R70 PILOT SPINDLES FUSE ISOLATOR SUPPORT DROP OUT ISOLATOR 11kV BOLTS AND NUTS GALVANISED 3/4*11'' BOLTS AND NUTS GALVANISED 3/4*2'' DROP OUT FUSE LINKS TRANSFORMER PLATFORM CONDUCTOR ACSR LUCY Cut-Outs 150amps LINE TAPS ALT 1 SURGE DIVERTER XCA 11KV EARTH WIRE 103/3 TRANSFORMER WIRING 120mmsq PVC LAY POLE 32ft/10m TRANSFORMER 50KVA 11KV/LV 3Ph EARTH ROD,1.3 (COPPER) TOTAL UNIT OF STOCK Each Each Each Each Set QUANTITY RATE 1 3 3 1 1 52734 88713.6 45054 415783.2 492627.6 TOTAL 52734 266140.8 135162 415783.2 492627.6

Each Each Piece Each Metre Each Each Each Metre Metre Each Each Metre

4 4 3

12258 7806 6914.4

49032 31224 20743.2 2388043.2 41796 2459728.8 65610 1996326 126240 193080 404671.2 10588788 3300 19731030

1 2388043.2 18 3 3 3 100 20 1 1 3 2322 819909.6 21870 665442 1262.4 9654 404671.2 10588788 1100

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Appendix VI: Homer extracts

Solar resource:

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Diesel inputs

60