IDS 610

International Politics

GLOBAL DRUG TRAFFICKING

Mohamed Thaj 5307559 Institute of Diplomacy and International Studies Rangsit University

Contents

I. Drug Trafficking II. History of Drugs and its Trafficking III. Classification of Drugs IV. Causes for Drug Trafficking Drug Prohibition Drugs Demand Globalization Susceptible Environment V. Global Drug Usage & Trafficking Opiates Opium Heroin Cocaine Cannabis Amphetamine Type Stimulant VI. Consequences of Drug Trafficking Illicit Drug Use Spread of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Criminal Activities Corruption & Terrorism Organized Crimes

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VII. Enforced Drug Counter Measures 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Monthly Drug Report Domestic Narcotic Laws Counter-Productive Drug Demand Reduction VIII. Eradication of Drug Trafficking ( Alternative Policy) Problem of Drug a Problem of Public Health The Reduction of Consumption Through The Dissemination of Information & Prevention A New Focus Towards Organized Crime Conclusion References

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GLOBAL DRUG TRAFFICKING

Drug Trafficking one of the most serious crimes in the world today, does not starts from trafficking of drug from one country to another, the process of drug trafficking starts from the illegal production of it. In that sense, Drug trafficking can be defined as the illegal production, packaging, movement, distribution, sale of psychoactive controlled substances and its paraphernalia. It includes local exchange between a user and a dealer or a major international operation. Drug trafficking is a problem that affects every nation in the world and has far-reaching effects on many aspects of society, with many social consequences, including the presence of gangs and gang-related crimes, violence, organized crimes, social unrest impact neighborhoods in the drug trade.

Illegal drug usage is widespread globally and according to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime World Drug Report 2010, an estimate of US$600 billion is generated in the global drug trade 20091 and the world GDP in 2009 was at US$58 trillion2, which estimates the illegal drug market in the world is over 1% of total global commerce.

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, World Drug Report 2010; United Nations Publication, 2010 The World Bank: World Development Indicators database; World Bank, 1 July 2010

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History of Drugs and its Trafficking

The dealing with the psychoactive controlled substances can be back to long time in the history as early as around 5000 BC, where the opium poppy was cultivated in the Mesopotamia, which was known as 'Hul Gil', the plant of joy, and was used by magicians. Earliest evidence of drug prohibition was from an Egyptian priest in his prohibitionist teaching, write to his pupil I, thy superior, forbid thee to go to the travern. Thou art degraded like beasts.3 During the 1300 B.C. the Egyptians in the capital city of Thebes, began cultivation of opium thebaicum, grown in their famous poppy fields. The opium trade flourishes during the reign of Thutmose IV, Akhenaton and King Tutankhamen. The trade route included the Phoenicians and Minoans who move the profitable item across the Mediterranean Sea into Greece, Carthage, and Europe.

The Opium drug reached India between AD 700 and 800, where it quickly became a popular aphrodisiac and by 1000 century Opium was widely used in China and Far East countries. By the year 1300, opium had reached most of Europe, where the oil was used in anesthesia contexts, and to cure abdominal pain and infections. But the Spanish inquisition's targeted search for anything nefarious (and as opium came from the East, it was of course an evil drug) caused the drug to go underground, literally speaking, but in the 1525, Paracelsus introduced, laudanum or tincture of opium, into the practice of medicine which became a popular analgesic drug.

3 Wilbur Fisk Crafts, Sara Jane Timanus Crafts, Margaret W. Leitch, Mary Leitch; Intoxicating drinks & drugs in all lands and times:a twentieth century survey of intemperance, based on a symposium of testimony from one hundred missionaries and travelers

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Opium played a significant part in the relationship between China and the British Empire. In the late 18th century British merchants transported opium from India to China, and the Chinese government recognised the drug's negative effects on the country and not just the drug's addictive nature. The Chinese government believed opium trade caused large values to be taken out of China. In 1729, Emperor Yongzhengh of Qing Dynasty banned all forms of opium trade, still with the ban British traders, made good money by transporting and selling opium grown in India to China, but in 1839 the Chinese authorities enforced a total ban, which resulted in Opium wars, consisted of the First Opium War from 1839 to 1842 and the Second Opium War from 1856 to 1860. China was defeated in both wars leaving its government having to tolerate the opium trade and Opium was once again legalised, and by 1906, China had become the world's largest producer of raw opium, and was responsible for nearly 86 percent of the global production.

In 1909, International drug control began with efforts to check the problem of opium trade controlled by British colonial powers and opium in China, Under American pressure, representatives from countries with colonial possessions in the Far East and Persia met at Shanghai to hold the International Opium Conference, which laid the foundation for the International Opium Conference. The first international Opium Convention meet in 1912 held at Hague, and recommends various measures for the international control of the trade in opium. In an effort to maintain the lucrative opium trade as long as possible, Britain introduced dubious evidence against the coca plant as a stalling tactic. The Convention was implemented in 1915 and it went into force globally in 1919 when it was incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles.

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In 1925, a revised International Opium Convention was signed at Geneva, which went into effect on September 25, 1928, and was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series to regulate the drug trade and established the Permanent Central Opium Board to supervise the statistical control system, in order to arbitrate the production, manufacture, trade and retail of opium and its by-products. It also established a system of import certificates and export authorizations for the legal international trade in narcotics. Cannabis was also introduced with very little debate and no documented evidence of a widespread public health problem.

After Second World War, drug related matters were over taken by the United Nations after its formation. The Commission on Narcotic Drugs was established by the United Nations Economic and Social Council in 1946, with important functions under the drug control treaties started preparations for a worldwide drugs policy. The Single Convention, adopted in 1961, consolidated those treaties and broadened their scope to include cannabis and drugs whose effects are similar to those of the drugs specified. The Commission on Narcotic Drugs and the World Health Organization were empowered to add, remove, and transfer drugs among the treaty's four Schedules of controlled substances. The International Narcotics Control Board was put in charge of administering controls on drug production, international trade, and dispensation.

The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) established in the year 1997 was delegated the Board's day-to-day work of monitoring the situation in each country and working with national authorities to ensure compliance with the Single Convention. This treaty has since been supplemented by the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and

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Psychotropic Substances, which strengthens provisions against money laundering and other drug-related offenses.

Classification of Drugs

There is no single and precise definition for drugs, in a broad sense it is any substances that are taken, absorbed, or injected in to the body which alters bodily functions. Drugs can be either recreational or either have a medical utility or serve both purposes. In this sense, we have to make clear distinction from normal drugs and narcotic substances. Narcotic and psychotropic substances known as Recreational drugs are chemical substances that affect the central nervous system most of them have addictive and habitual effects once taken.

While the drug related conventions make distinction in the types of drugs, according to the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, Narcotic drug means any of the substances, natural or synthetic, in Schedules I and II of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 and that Convention as amended by the 1972 Protocol Amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 19614

1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances

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While distinction has been made to Psychotropic substance as any substance, natural or synthetic, or any natural material in Schedules I, II, III and IV of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, 19715

Causes for Drug Trafficking

Drug Prohibition

Since ancient time, societies have attempted to regulate drugs either by prohibiting them, or by establishing some sort of moral control over their use, possession, and distribution. People has been always used them for diverse purposes including medicine, war, religion, aphrodisiacs, magic. These substances had no monetary value until when the nation states began creating laws, regulation and penalties against possession and use of drugs.

With the introduction of these prohibitive laws, drugs lost their exclusive use value and acquired exchange value as commodities, which subjected to the laws of supply and demand. With steady demand for drugs, the individuals involved realized the profit involved which lead to creation of a Black Market which is firmly rooted in the economic conventions of free-enterprise and capitalism. Due to prohibition and regulation of these drugs, Capitalism has been a major force in the creation of the black market for these substances, elevating them to privileged position among the most profitable raw materials for foreign exchange.

1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Page | 6

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Drugs Demand

Demand in drugs in countries with individuals who are use to abuse drugs, and of drug addicts, chain of supply to fulfill the demand of that country. Plants like Papaver somniferum (Opium Poppy), Erythroxylum coca (Coca), Cannabis sativa (Cannabis) which are the raw materials for drugs including heroin, cocaine, marijuana and many more drugs are grown well in the countries that experience a relatively hot, humid climate year round which is favourable weather conditions where harvesting of the drug related plants can take three to four times a year, which can earn much greater profits than farmers producing other edible crops in those regions.

Individuals from many developed countries take the role of supplier for those who demand the finished good or service, by harvesting and selling drug producing plants to leading drug mafia, cartel in the region, where it is then turned to produce the consumable drugs that are smuggled in to the countries where there is demand for those. The drug cartels creates thousands of jobs which becomes a source of income for people in agriculture, chemical processing, packaging, transportation, accountancy, and administration in order to produce the finished goods that will be smuggled into the countries in demand for those finished consumable drugs. It also creates opportunity for women in those countries to work in the same setting as their male counterpart.

Globalization

Todays world can be granted as a constantly developing world with increases in globalization, technology, telecommunications and travel, while both academics

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and corporate label the globalization as the good and irreversible factor. In reality, the things are not always as we thinking. Globalization is confronted by many political challenges. Countries have opened their borders to trade and capital flows from abroad are growing faster, and that more access to information from the rest of the world has reinforced democratic principles in nation. But it is also true to state that globalization has not benefited everyone. That not all groups of people societies are taking good advantage of the opportunities brought about by globalization. Drug trafficking is a part of globalization, but it is not the type of globalization that majority of them wanted. Plants and drugs that were formerly of local significance have become familiar and available in other parts of the world, enabling drug trafficking to become one of the most serious international crimes.

Susceptible Environment

The flow of drugs throughout the world have existed over the years, there has been a dramatic increase the quantity of drugs that have been trafficked over the last several years. From previous paragraphs we have noted globalization and demand for drugs played an important role, along with strategic location, regardless of the mode of transportation, the lack of control over major trade routes with weak enforcement capability, laissez-faire working environment in some countries, porous national borders of countries, and the underpaid officials are susceptible to corruption, can be bribed to look the other way or even be induced to work in direct involvement with traffickers, a weak judiciary and the presence of large quantities of money that remain disintegrated from the legitimate economy contribute to the factors for the spread of illegal drug trade in the world.

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Global Drug Usage & Trafficking

Opiates According to UNODC World Drug Report 2009, more than 15 million people in the world consume illicit opiates type drug, which is included in Opium, Morphine, and Heroin, while majority of them use the most lethal form the Heroin. Getting opiates from producer to consumers worldwide is a well-organized and profitable activity. A rough estimate of above 1 million people is involved in the trafficking of opiates across countries and regions. The supply source of opiates is concentrated on the three areas, Afghanistan, South-East Asia (mostly Myanmar) and Latin America (Mexico and Colombia), while Afghanistan contribute to 90% of global illicit opium production.

Opium Around 4 million opiates consumers consumes about 1,100 metric ton of opium in raw form. In Opium equivalents, demand for opiate can be estimated at 3,700 metric ton worldwide. Consumption of opium is concentrated in the Asia region. World largest opium producer and exporter Afghanistan consumes 80 metric ton opium which is about 7% of total world demand6. With an exception of China, other countries bordering Afghanistan Iran, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan consumes an estimate of 650 metric ton per year, which is 60% of the global consumption. Out of this a large volume of Opium, approximately 450 metric ton is consumed in Iran7. Over 58 metric ton of opium is consumed annually in the Russian Federation, while 16 metric ton annually is consumed in the Middle East, while opium consumption in the American region has been reported in Mexico. The opium consumed in South-East and East Asia originates mainly in

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Afghanistan Drug Use Survey 2005; United Nations Publication, 2006 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Illicit Drug Trends in Central Asia; United Nations Publication, 2008 Page | 9
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Myanmar and to a much lesser extends in the Laos. The consumption in China is now appears to be limited to some 12 metric ton annually.8 Heroin An estimated of 340 metric ton of the heroin have been consumed each year worldwide. The Russia and Europe excluding Turkey, accounts for nearly half of global heroin consumption, with 70 metric ton of heroin consumed every year; Russia is estimated to be the country with the highest national level of consumption. The combined level of heroin consumption in European countries is estimated at around 85-90 metric ton. The United Kingdom with 19 metric ton, Italy with 18 metric ton, France with 10 metric ton and Germany with approximate 7 metric ton of heroin consumption dominates the within Europe. While around 20 metric ton of heroin is consumed in United States of America, 1.3 metric ton in Canada and 5 metric ton in Latin America. According to US Government reports, the majority of the heroin consumed in US comes from Latin America and Mexico. The rest is trafficked from Afghanistan via Europe and Africa. Despite being closer to the world largest heroin producer, heroin consumption in Iran is estimated at 14 metric ton, which is relatively a low value. With an estimate of 17 metric ton in 2008, India has the highest level of heroin consumption in South Asia, while the other South Asian countries have shown a considerable amount of heroin consumption. Myanmar and Lao Peoples Democratic Republic is the main source of heroin for South-East and East Asian countries which consumes about 18 metric ton of heroin. An estimate of 1.8 metric ton sourced from both Afghanistan and Myanmar is consumed in Australia and New Zealand. While nearly all of Africas opiate users are reportedly consuming heroine, with a rough estimate of 25 metric ton of heroin is would be

8 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Addiction, Crime and Insurgency: The Transnational Threat of Afghan Opium, 2009

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needed to supply Africas heroin addict populations, supplied by Afghan heroin, trafficked India, Pakistan and a number of countries along the Arabian Peninsula.

Map:1 Global Heroin flow originating from Asian region Source : UNODC

Cocaine

Cocaine has been a popular recreational drug for decades; Cocaine comprises at least two distinct drug products, powered cocaine and a range of cocaine base. Based on seizures, cocaine markets have grown from 87 countries in 1990 to 123 countries in 2008.9 Mainly due to eradication, the Colombian Coca cultivation decreased 58% between 2000 and 2009, while during the same period its cultivation in Peru increased by 38% and 112% in Bolivia. In 2008, an estimate of 865 metric tons of pure cocaine was produced and Colombia appears to have been responsible for about half of the global production, with Peru

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Annual Reports Questionnaire Page | 11

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contributing over one third and Bolivia making up the balance. It is estimated that 500 metric ton of pure cocaine were available for consumption in 2008, of which around 480 metric ton were actually consumed. More than 320 metric ton of cocaine is consumed in the major cocaine markets of North America with 41% and West Europe 26%, while Latin America not far behind consumed about 20% of global cocaine consumption.

Map:2 Global Cocaine flow Source : UNODC

Cannabis UNODC estimates that between 200,000641,800 hectares of area was used for outdoor cannabis cultivation in 2008. Total cannabis herb production is estimated to range from 13,300-66,100 metric ton and for cannabis resin, the estimated production range is 2,200-9,900 metric ton. About 143 and 190 million persons globally used cannabis at least once in 2007. Cannabis use seems to be increasing in several countries in Latin America and Africa. Cannabis herb seizure amounted to 5,605 metric ton while cannabis resin seizure

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amounted to 1,300 metric ton in 2007. Majority of cannabis herb seizures were reported in Mexico with 39% of world seizure, followed by USA with 26%, Bolivia with 8%, Nigeria and Morocco with 4%, and both Colombia and Paraguay with 3% of the seizures. On the other hand, Spain with 50%, followed by Morocco 9%, Pakistan 8%, Iran 7%, Afghanistan 6%, Belgium 5%, and both Portugal and France 3% of world cannabis herb seizures were reported. A total of 176 countries and territories have been reported to cannabis seizures during the period of 2005-2007.10

Amphetamine Type Stimulant Synthetic substances comprised of amphetamine-group substances which includes amphetamine, methamphetamine, and methacathinone and ecstasy-group substances MDMA and its analogues are termed as Amphetamine Type Stimulants (ATS). All ATS are found in diverse forms and vary in purity. Methamphetamine or amphetamine can be in powder, tablet, paste or crystalline form while ecstasy is usually found in tablet or powder form. The spreading use of ATS can be attributed to their attractiveness to both users and the criminal organization who manufacture them alike. The manufacture of ATS is not geographically limited. ATS laboratories therefore tend to be located close to consumer markets. Significant ATS manufacture occurs throughout East and South-East Asia with predominately methamphetamine and ecstasy, North America with methamphetamine and ecstasy in all three countries, Europe its mostly amphetamine and ecstasy with increasing methamphetamine manufacturing, Oceania with methamphetamine and both amphetamine and ecstasy to a lesser extent, most notably in southern part of Africa methamphetamine and methcathinone. ATS trafficking remains to a larger extent intra-regional, as manufacture can

10

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, World Drug Report 2009; United Nations Publication, 2009 Page | 13

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and does occur close to the consumer market. During 2008 about 56% methamphetamine of world seizures was done in East and South-East Asia, while North America 42% and to a much lesser extent, Europe. Amphetamine seizures occurred mainly in the Near and Middle East with 63% of seizures, while West and Central Europe 33% and to a much lesser extend North America. 65% of Ecstasy (MDMA) was seized in North America, while 20% was seized in West and Central Europe, and 4 % was from South East Europe.

Map:3 Trafficking of Amphetamine Group Substances Source : UNODC

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Map:4 Trafficking of Amphetamine Group Substances Source : UNODC

Consequences of Drug Trafficking

Drug trafficking and drug cartels create economic, political, and social repercussions among the countries of the world. This impose immense expense on individuals, families, societies, and governments worldwide by destroying the lives of consumers, destroying the social fabric, destroying the natural resources in the producing countries, and destroys the institutions upon which democracies and democratic principles are edified. Billions of dollars are produced through illegal drug trade revenue for organized crime in the world.

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Illicit Drug Use

Illicit drug use is only part of an extensive phenomenon of drug trafficking. In the context of rapid and deep socioeconomic changes throughout the world, the international drug control system has succeeded in containing the spread of annual illicit drug use to around 200 million people or 5% of the world population aged between 15years to 64 years.11 Illicit drug use by individual does not affect the individual alone. With fast paced social, economic and technological change, the drug addiction also affects the drug abusers families, neighborhoods, and the larger society by weakening the sense of family and reducing the sense of belonging to people, groups and society. Kofi Atta Annan, seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations speaking at the United Nations General Assembly "Drug Summit" in June 1998, pointed out that "New threats have emerged to national security, economic development, democracy and sovereignty in the form of transnational networks of crime, drug trafficking, money-laundering and terrorism."12

According to UNODC Annual Drug Report 2010, they estimates that between 155 and 250 million people, or 3.5% to 5.7% of the world population of aged 15-64 had used illicit substances at least once in the year 2009. While Cannabis is being the most widely used with 129-190 million people, followed by Amphetamine-Type Stimulants, Opiates and Cocaine. On the other hand, opiates have been noted as the most harmful in drugs in use.13

11

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, World Drug Report 2010; United Nations Publication, 2010 Kofi Atta Annan, United Nations General Assembly "Drug Summit, 1998 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, World Drug Report 2010; United Nations Publication, 2010

12

13

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Spread of Human Immunodeficiency Virus

The classic image of the drug addicted is that of a person devoid of punch injecting in individuals vein the drug in a dark room. But many drug consumers manage to bear an apparently normal life, even if the drug consume affects their daily life. Thousands of persons die annually because of drug overdose. Drug addiction is also one of the fastest ways to spread the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), through the sharing of needles and other drug paraphernalia. It is also spread through just using drugs, because of the effect of drugs on a person's judgment. This can cause people to make bad decisions and participate in dangerous sexual activities with an infected individual. According to the NIDA, drug abuse is now the single largest factor in the spread of HIV in the United States.

According to UNODC Annual Drug Report 2010, estimate of 11-21 million people aged between 15-64 years, in the world are drug users are those who used to inject drugs and about 22% of the HIV positives in western world are drug consumers injecting drugs with infected needles.14

Criminal Activities

At the same time difficulty in accessing to and relatively high cost of drugs makes drug addicts to indulge in other criminal activities results in the high crime rate in the society. Robbery and violence are connected with the drug use and the drug users often get in to delinquency or prostitution to satisfy their associates. Rival groups fight and kill to keep control of drug distribution. In many cities around the world, drugs have been the main

14

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, World Drug Report 2010; United Nations Publication, 2010

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cause involved in homicide. Drug addicts also cause their family to get separated, as addicted parents have trouble in offering a stable family life to their children with the link between the parent and the child gets destroyed. Drugs can induce violent behavior on the people who are quite and calm, may results in drug addicts to physical abuse on their partner and children. Drug addicted parents often get indebted, steal from friends or family or lose their family, friends and even their job. With the loss of stable family life many of the children of drug addicts run away from home and starts living on the streets making high probability of them becoming drug addicts.

The most recent annual data published by Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) of United States of America show that more than 14 million arrests in 2008 in United States of America, 12.2% were for drug violations, the most common arrest crime category and an approximate of 4 percent of all homicides in 2008 were drug-relate.15 An approximate of 100 billion United States dollar is has been costing to US trade and industry annually due to the decrease in productivity, resulted from high absenteeism, accidents, medical assistance and compensations given to the employees cost.

Corruption & Terrorism

The drug trafficking is the largest illegal business in the world with an economic impact on the world with US $ 600 billion per year enriches the drug barons, gangsters, corrupt enforcement officers, bribe politicians and finance terrorism, and at a world level, enforcement authorities only manages to confiscate just 10-15% of the trafficked

15 2008 Crime in the United States, FBI Uniform Crime Reports; Washington, DC: US Dept. of Justice, September 2009

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drugs. Drugs can corrode a society, hitting in healthy work hand, trusty governments, honest enforcement officers, and even law respecting citizens. With involvement of high profits in the drug trafficking, Rebels and other terrorist also gets involved in drug trafficking and even most vicious ethnic and religious conflicts around the world have its revenue from drug trafficking. In countries where they are generally low incomes, the money amounts fluttered by the drug traffickers are too high for people earning too little to survive, which corrupts governmental and law enforcement officials. Judicial panel, judge high ranking officials, policemen and police officers specialized in anti-drug enforcement fall in the trap of corruption. Drug cartels who funds for politicians in their electoral campaigns, even fail to take the position against drug trafficking. Drug traffickers even have build up their arms to protect their ring of the drug trade. With corrupt officials and by intimidate officials; the drug traffickers try to remove inconveniences in the drug transportation. They even assassinate the brave and honest anti-drug officials who become a hindrance in their path of drug trade.

Cannabis and synthetic drugs which are produces almost everywhere, is a source of funding for rebel movements in regions as diverse as Casamance in Senegal, Aceh in Indonesia and southern Nepal, Methamphetamine has been key to the funding the ethnic militias in Myanmar. Cocaine and Heroin, the most lucrative drug originates in poor and unstable area and end in the richest nations on earth. All most all the worlds heroin and the vast bulk of the worlds cocaine produced in countries that have experience insurgency problems. Afghanistan and Myanmar, where rebel armies are at least partly funded by the drug trade are primary cultivation areas of opium poppy. Afghanistan responsible for 90% of global opium production and 99% of all opium produced in Afghanistan comes from just seven provinces where the rebel groups are strongest. While forces aligned to the Taliban control the drug trafficking in these seven provinces collect at least estimated US $ 125

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million per year through taxation of cultivation, production and trafficking.16 While the drug trade provides some funds for the conflicts, more significant is the cover the conflict provides for the drug trade. Those who profits most from heroin trafficking are professional criminals and their network of corrupt officials. Antonio Mazzitelli Regional Representative for United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Central and West Africa listed piracy, terrorism funding, money laundering, extortion, kidnapping, prostitution, counterfeit products, human trafficking, and prostitution inter alia as illicit activities resulting as direct effects of the nascent drug trade.17

Organized Crimes

The money gained through all forms of organized crime can cause trouble and smuggling of contraband, such as cigarettes, diamonds, timber or oil has been a mainstay of rebel financing. The illegal drug markets are simply worth more money than those of other contraband goods, and since they are illicit, drugs remain unambiguously the domain of organized crime. Drug traffickers launder illicit money gained to clean it. They corrupt and train their actions banks and lawyers for cover up the trail of the money from drug trafficking and other illegal methods. They even depose a large part of the profits in financial centers which ensure confidentiality and attractive gaining from investments. Money launders clean up their money transferring them electronically all over the world, while the enforcement officials haven't got many tools to control these methods. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime state in their 2010 Annual Report that "moneylaundering is the method by which criminals disguise the illegal origins of their wealth and

16

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, World Drug Report 2010; United Nations Publication, 2010

Antonio Mazzitelli, UNODC Representative for Central and West Africa; Global Drug Trafficking: Africa's Expanding Role, 2009 Page | 20
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protect their asset bases in order to avoid suspicion of law enforcement and to prevent leaving a trail of incriminating evidence,"18 and that financial institutions, particularly U.S. and European banks are key to efforts to choke-off illicit profits from the grisly trade. Part of the fallout from capitalism's economic meltdown has been that "drugs money worth billions of dollars kept the financial system afloat at the height of the global crisis"19

The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crimes estimate that profits derived from narcotics rackets amount to some US $600 billion annually and that up to US $1.5 trillion in drug money is laundered through seemingly legitimate enterprises.20 Antonio Maria Costa, UNODC's director, told to an British newspaper that he saw evidence that proceeds from the illicit trade were "the only liquid investment capital" available to some banks on the brink of collapse last year and that "a majority of the $352bn (216bn) of drugs profits was absorbed into the economic system as a result." He also pointed that in "many instances, the money from drugs were the only liquid investment capital." And with markets tanking and major bank failures nearly a daily occurrence, "liquidity was the banking system's main problem and hence liquid capital became an important factor." According to Costa, "Inter-bank loans were funded by money that originated from the drugs trade and other illegal activities... There were signs that some banks were rescued that way."

The people of the world pay to the extensive damages done by the illegal drug trade in the world, the decrease in the individual productivity, the cost of medical treatments of the addicts, damaged done to the public by robbing and destroying properties, and the cost of implementing the law. Due to varying estimates of the amounts of drugs

18

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, World Drug Report 2010; United Nations Publication, 2010 The Observer; Drug money saved banks in global crisis, claims UN advisor; 13th December 2009 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, World Drug Report 2010; United Nations Publication, 2010 Page | 21

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produced, refined, exported, and consumed, there is no clear way to accurately measure the money made or spent on all of the different phases of drug trafficking.

Enforced Drug Counter Measures

The use of drugs and trafficking of drugs creating an economic and social impact on the nations worldwide, the government of the nations had been trying to prohibit the drugs in various stages. The Prohibition of drugs at various levels of government or other authority can be dated back to long history when the cultivation, use, and trade of psychoactive and other drugs has occurred.

The earliest form of drug prohibition said to be taken up by religious movements. Perhaps the earliest recorded example is the prohibition of the use of alcohol under Islamic Sharia law, which is usually attributed to passages in the Qur'an dating from the 7th century. Religious intolerance by the Christians in Europe began to criminalize drugs' possession and trade during the the Middle Ages, and such legislation has continued until the present day, by both religious and non-religious governments.

International and domestic response to drug trafficking has been varied, but several players are involved, from the UN to the United States, European countries and organizations from several countries. Earliest form of international responses has been The International Opium Convention, signed at The Hague on January 23, 1912.
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With the entry in to force of Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs 1961, article 44 of the convention calls for termination of the earlier forms international treaties, with a list of earlier forms.

1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

The Single

Convention

on

Narcotic

Drugs

1961

is

an

international treaty to prohibit production and supply of specific drugs and of drugs with similar effects except under license for specific purposes, such as medical treatment and research. The Single Convention is the most important treaty since it lays the grounds for control of legal trade and its makes distinction between licit and illicit. The institute of all activities related to drug trade including culture, fabrication, importation, exportation, sale, distribution and use are put forward by the Single Convention as its general principle. It express parties undertake to limit the use of drugs to medical and scientific needs, in view of protecting public health. The Convention establishes a worldwide control system on the lawful traffic in narcotics. This business is limited principally to the pharmaceutical purposes, the narcotics necessary in medicine as mentioned as in Preamble on the Single Convention Recognizing that the medical use of narcotics drugs continues to be indispensable for the relief of pain and suffering and tat adequate provision must be made to ensure the availability of narcotic drugs for such purposes.21

The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs 1961 allows only drugs with morphine-like, cocaine-like, and cannabis-like effects to be added to the Schedules. The strength of the drug is not relevant; only the similarity of its effects to the substances already

Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961, as amended by the 1972 Protocol amending the Single Convention of Narcotic Drugs, 1961 Page | 23
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controlled. The Single Convention is supplemented by two other major drug control treaties, The Convention on Psychotropic Substances 1971 and The United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances 1988.

1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances

The Convention

on

Psychotropic

Substances 1971

is

a United

Nations treaty designed to control controls psychoactive drugs such as LSD, Ecstasy, and other drugs whose unique newly discovered psychoactive could not be banned with the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs 1961 as its scope was limited to drugs with cannabislike, coca-like and opium-like effects. The widely available of psychotropic substances, with negative health effects and deteriorating moral standards of the individuals, the government authorities opposed highly opposed to such drugs. The Convention, which contains import and export restrictions and other rules aimed at limiting drug use to scientific and medical purposes. Under the direction of the United Nations Office of Legal Affairs the Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances published gave a crucial to the interpretation of the treaties. Many of domestic laws including the U.S. Psychotropic Substances Act, the UK Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, and the Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act were passed in order to implement the Convention on Psychotropic Substances 1971.

1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances The Provisions to end the international trafficking of drugs covered by Convention on Psychotropic Substances 1971 are controlled in The 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. This
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convention adds additional enforcement mechanisms for fighting drug traffickers, including asset forfeiture provisions. The Convention also establishes a system of

drug precursor regulation controlled by the Single Convention and the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. It also strengthens provisions against money laundering and other drug-related crimes, dividing them into two tables of listed chemicals. The Convention obliges the states to regard possession, purchase or cultivation of narcotics as a criminal offence. Article 3.2 Subject to its constitutional principles and the basic concepts of its legal system, each Party shall adopt such measures as may be necessary to establish as a criminal offence under its domestic law, when committed intentionally, the possession, purchase or cultivation of drugs or psychotropic substances for personal consumption contrary to the provisions of the 1961 Convention, the 1961 Convention as amended of the 1971 Convention.22 It is a switch in the International Treaties. The aim of the Single Convention, apart from the objectives was to provide a worldwide control system on the production and trade in narcotics and to impose criminal offences for those who would not respect the rules.

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime The Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention, established as a United Nations agency by combining United Nations International Drug Control Program (UNDCP) and the Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Division, later renamed as United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). It was established to assist the UN in better addressing a coordinated, comprehensive response to the interrelated issues of illicit trafficking in and abuse of drugs, crime prevention and criminal justice, international terrorism, and corruption. These goals are pursued through three primary functions: research, guidance and support to governments in the adoption and implementation of various crimes

22

1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Page | 25

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like drug, terrorism, and corruption related conventions, treaties and protocols, as well as technical/financial assistance to said governments to face their respective situations and challenges in these fields. The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961 as amended by the 1972 Protocol; the Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971 and the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances of 1988, three major international drug control treaties that guide UNODC's drug related program are mutually supportive and complementary. An important purpose of the first two treaties is to codify internationally applicable control measures in order to ensure the availability of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances for medical and scientific purposes, and to prevent their diversion into illicit channels including general provisions on trafficking and drug abuse.

Monthly Drug Report

Report of the International Narcotics Control published yearly by International Narcotics Control Board have increased awareness about the extent of drug abuse and the volume of traffic in the region, thereby providing inputs towards drug control policies and strategy, and strengthening the resolve to fight the menace. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime annual World Drug Report and other periodical projects aimed at addressing specific problem areas in the fight against drugs. Do Drugs control your life? World Drug Campaign, by United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), the international campaign to raise awareness about the major challenge that illicit drugs represent to society as a whole, and especially to the young. The goal of the campaign is to

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mobilize support and to inspire people to act against drug abuse and trafficking. The campaign encourages young people to put their health first and not to take drugs.

Domestic Narcotic Laws

Most provisions of the Narcotics are not self-executing. Individual state parties must pass domestic laws to carry out provisions made in the Conventions. International treaties can be a direct source of internal or municipal law for the provisions that are self-executing, i.e. sufficiently clear in order to be directly used in municipal law without any legislative or administrative intervention of the state. It gives a greater power of interpretation to the states in the application of the treaty and it permits a reform of the domestic law. Since the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime works with countries' legislatures to ensure compliance most national drug statutes in the UNODC's legal library share a high degree of conformity with the Single Convention and its supplementary treaties, the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances and the 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. Domestic drug laws varies in different countries, While most drugs are legal to possess, many governments regulate the manufacture, distribution, marketing, and sale of some drugs, for instance through a prescription system. Continuing problem remains in effect, as the prohibited drugs continue to be available through illegal trade; many governments do not criminalize the possession of a limited quantity of certain drugs for personal use, while still prohibiting their sale or manufacture, or possession in large quantities. Some laws set a specific volume of a particular drug, above which is evidence of trafficking or sale of drug, by the application of the law. Even drug law decriminalized nations, the trafficking of the drug is forbidden and carries penalty. Most of the countries consider the trafficking of drugs

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as crime against humanity. Some countries provide the sentence of life imprisonment and even countries that support death penalty, apply it for the trafficking of drug.

Counter-Productive

The War on Drugs, term coined by the then president of America Richard Nixon, undertaken by the United States government along with the assistance of participating countries campaigned on prohibition of drugs and foreign military aid, intended to both define and reduce the illegal drug trade. This initiative includes a set of drug policies of the United States that are intended to discourage the production, distribution, and consumption of illegal psychoactive drugs. The War on Drugs term was replaced by "counter-productive", by Obama administration, although no much alteration was made to the drug enforcement policy. The War of Drugs implemented as part of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 were a continuation of drug prohibition policies in the U.S. which stretched back to the year 1914.

Drug Demand Reduction

The drug policy demand reduction, entirely distinct from supply reduction of drugs, aims at reducing the demand of drugs among the drug users by reducing their desire for illicit drugs. Prevention, treatment and rehabilitation are equally important as seizing drugs, capturing the offender, sting operations, eliminating sources in curbing the drug problem world-wide. Pino Arlacchi, Executive Director of the UN International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP) said "Supply and demand is equal evils, which must be

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attacked simultaneously and with similar vigour and conviction".23 Success of demand reduction is crucial if we want to ensure permanent success in the fight against drugs. Some discussions of demand reduction make a distinction between policies which address single issues or are short-term interventions and those which approach drug demand as a complex issue with multiple social risk factors. While both supply and demand reduction policies are often implemented together. Economists Milton Friedman argued that, due to the law of supply and demand, reducing demand is the only effective way to reduce drug use longterm. It is however questionable whether the programs pursued under the name of demand reduction actually reduce demand. Demand reduction was one of six key issues addressed at the United Nations General Assembly special session on the world drug problem in 1998.

Eradication of Drug Trafficking (Alternative Policy)

Dated long back to years, nations states, local government authorities, local enforcement agencies, international enforcement agencies, non-governmental organizations, international organizations, have been working to eliminate the drug use and its trafficking around the world, the policies that have been in place havent been able to work as it has to be. People argued that the current drug policies are inefficient. Prohibitionist policies could be viewed as a danger, for human rights and for democracy. It can also be a tool for imperialistic politics by the United States as it has, inter alia, permitted State to send

Pino Arlacchi, Executive Director of the UN International Drug Control Programme; UN General Assembly Special Session on the World Drug Problem, 1998 Page | 29
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military forces in some countries to assure the enforcement of its policy. By implementing and interpreting the Narcotics Conventions in a certain way, the United States of America and the international drug control bodies are influencing on internal affairs of many countries, which can be considered as a breach to their national sovereignty, to the right to natural resources and furthermore, as actions against the economical, cultural, social and political independence of a country. The duty of non-intervention is one of the basic principles of the Charter of the United Nations and of the relations between States or between a State and an international organisation. Drug policies are so misused and have such important consequences in many field of social life, that saying that by choosing a drug policy, a State makes a choice of an economical, cultural, social and political system can be seen less polemical than at the first sight.

Problem of Drug a Problem of Public Health

Changes in shift from the prohibitive policy, in order to eliminate the trafficking of the drugs, focus should be held in the direction of reducing the demand for the drugs. Drug abuse is a major public health problem that impacts society on multiple levels. Directly or indirectly, every community is affected by drug abuse and addiction, as is every family. Drugs results in paying huge amount by the users and non users of drugs in health care expenditures, lost earnings, and costs associated with crime and accidents. This is an enormous burden that affects all of society. Top medical problems like cancer, heart disease, HIV/AIDS, Top social problems like drugged/drunken driving, violence, stress, child abuse are also related to the drug abuse and its impact. President of United States America, Barack Obamas planned out to fight drug abuse and trafficking with shifting the emphasis from fighting a war on drugs to treating the problem as a national health issue. Gil Kerlikowske,

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director of the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy said, Its a disease, its diagnosable and its certainly something that can be treated -- but its not a war. Reduce the desire of drug addicts to go for drugs by treating their drug problem as a health problem, minimizing the economic and social consequence from drug problem. The Drug policy of Sweden is one of zero tolerance, including cannabis, and focuses on prevention, treatment, and control, aiming to reduce both the supply of and demand for illegal drugs. Enforcement is in the form of widespread drug testing, and penalties ranging from rehabilitation treatment and fines to prison sentences up to ten years long. A report by the UNODC lauded Sweden for having one of the lowest drug usage rates in the western world, and attributes this to a drug policy that invests heavily in prevention and treatment (including free community services), as well as in strict law enforcement.

The Reduction of Consumption Through The Dissemination of Information & Prevention

Preventing drug abuse is most effective approach to combating the nation's drug problem. Research has shown that there are various possible factors that could influence and increase the probability of drug use in youth. Environmental factors in the child's youth are: child abuse, exposure to drugs, lack of supervision, media influence, and peer pressure. Internal factors that are within the child or part of their personalities are selfesteem, poor social skills, attitudes about drugs, and many others. Key risk periods for drug abuse occur during major transitions in a child's life. Some of these transitional periods that could increase the possibility of youth using drugs are puberty, moving, divorce, leaving the security of the home and entering school. School transitions such as from elementary to middle school or middle school to high school can be times that children and teenagers make

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new friends and are more susceptible to fall into environments where there are drugs available. Three exacerbating factors that can influence drug use to become drug abuse are social approval, lack of perceived risks, and availability of drugs in the community. A concept known as "environmental prevention" focuses on changing community conditions or policies so that the availability of substances is reduced as well as the demand. National research by the Children's Defense Fund illustrates that every $1.00 invested in prevention programs saves America $7.00 in reduced costs of public aid, special education, and treatment services. This means that we can realize a 700% savings through results-oriented, cost effective programming The goal of prevention is to make a positive difference in the lives of children, families and communities. Studies have shown that $1 spent on effective prevention saves $4-$5 in treatment and law enforcement costs, so time and money put into effective prevention programming is well spent.

A New Focus Towards Organized Crime Transnational organized crime is considered as one of the major threats to human security, impeding the social, economic, political and cultural development of societies worldwide. It is a multi-faceted phenomenon and has manifested itself in different activities, among others, drug trafficking, trafficking in human beings; trafficking in firearms; smuggling of migrants; money laundering; etc. In particular drug trafficking is one of the main activities of organized crime groups, generating enormous profits. UNODC works closely with Governments, international organizations and civil society to strengthen cooperation to counter the pervasive influence of organized crime and drug trafficking. Antonio Maria Costa, head of the U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime said, Criminals are reaping profits in the tens of billions of dollars. But countries are not cooperating enough
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with each other and the United Nations, and are too focused on traffickers.24 He also added "We have to start addressing the markets, which are gigantic in size, adding that criminals who supply those markets have transformed themselves into a well armed, transnational "superpower." Ten years after the signing of U.N. Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, crime in the internationalized quicker than law enforcement and world governance should have done so, as the member states kindly neglect the seriousness of the problem. This neglect can not only threaten economic, but as criminals today can influence elections, politicians and the military and they can gain power. Arresting some traffickers may divert the flows, but it will not shut them off. Antonio Maria Costa called governments to smash markets supplied by the global "superpower" of organized criminals trafficking drugs, people, arms and counterfeit goods, he also called for countries to step up action in rooting out corruption in governments and in the private sector worldwide that allows organized crime to thrive and urged to strengthen anti-money laundering and anti-corruption measures. Report called The Globalization of Crime says "national responses are inadequate (as) they displace the problem from one country

Conclusion
The production and cultivation of drugs are not something that can be totally eliminated as drugs has its legal use. Illegal cultivations and illegal channeling of the drugs from the legal sources begins the process of drug trafficking, drug traffickers plays an enormous role in the process. Drug trafficking is directly tied to a whole range of criminal activities including - money-laundering, was paved by vast opportunities from globalization

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime; The Globalization of Crime: A Transnational Organized Crime Threat Assessment; United Nations Publications, 2010 Page | 33
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and larger financial deregulations. Even thought the illegal drug trafficking represents only a minute percentage of trade in comparison to the legal global drug trade, the profits gained from the money laundering which is controlled by the criminal networks can have an impact on the world financial chain. The difference in the ratified law and its enforcement to halt the drug trafficking can be noted in many parts of the world, influenced by the criminal network with their hugely profits from money laundered. Small- time drug traffickers always fall in the pit of law enforcement, even though the law enforcement spread their nets for a greater catch, the drug traffickers effortlessly adapt to such disruptions by using new smuggling innovation and routes. Drug use and addiction being the route cause for the high involvement of drugs in some aspects of life, the drug addicts, who consume drugs with purchase of drug, finance organized crime are those who must accept responsibility for the broad range of costs associated with the drug industry.

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