Electric field

In physics, an electric field is the region of space surrounding electrically charged particles and time-varying magnetic fields. The electric field depicts the force exerted on other electrically charged objects by the electrically charged particle the field is surrounding. The concept of an electric field was introduced by Michael Faraday

To help visualize how a charge, or a collection of charges, influences the region around it, the concept of an electric field is used. The electric field E is analogous to g, which we called the acceleration due to gravity but which is really the gravitational field. Everything we learned about gravity, and how masses respond to gravitational forces, can help us understand how electric charges respond to electric forces. The electric field a distance r away from a point charge Q is given by: Electric field from a point charge : E = k Q / r2 The electric field from a positive charge points away from the charge; the electric field from a negative charge points toward the charge. Like the electric force, the electric field E is a vector. If the electric field at a particular point is known, the force a charge q experiences when it is placed at that point is given by : F = qE If q is positive, the force is in the same direction as the field; if q is negative, the force is in the opposite direction as the field.

Magnetic field
A magnetic field may be represented by a mathematical description of the magnetic influence of electric currents and magnetic materials. The magnetic field at any given point is specified by both a direction and a magnitude (or strength); as such it is a vector field.[nb 1] The magnetic field is most commonly defined in terms of the Lorentz force it exerts on moving electric charges. There are two separate but closely related fields to which the name 'magnetic field' can refer: a magnetic B field and a magnetic H field. Magnetic fields are produced by moving electric charges and the intrinsic magnetic moments of elementary particles associated with a fundamental quantum property, theirspin. In special relativity, electric and magnetic fields are two interrelated aspects of a single object, called the electromagnetic tensor; the split of this tensor into electric and magnetic fields depends on

the relative velocity of the observer and charge. In quantum physics, the electromagnetic field is quantized and electromagnetic interactions result from the exchange of photons. Magnetic fields have had many uses in ancient and modern society. The Earth produces its own magnetic field, which is important in navigation. Rotating magnetic fields are utilized in both electric motors and generators. Magnetic forces give information about the charge carriers in a material through the Hall effect. The interaction of magnetic fields in electric devices such as transformers is studied in the discipline of magnetic circuits.

Electro magnetic Radiation

Electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) is a form of energy emitted and absorbed by charged particles, which exhibits wave-like behavior as it travels through space. EMR has both electric and magnetic field components, which stand in a fixed ratio of intensity to each other, and whichoscillate in phase perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation. In vacuum, electromagnetic radiation propagates at a characteristic speed, the speed of light. Electromagnetic radiation is a particular form of the more general electromagnetic field (EM field), which is produced by moving charges. Electromagnetic radiation is associated with EM fields that are far enough away from the moving charges that produced them, that absorption of the EM radiation no longer affects the behavior of these moving charges. These two types or behaviors of EM field are sometimes referred to as the near and far field. In this language, EMR is merely another name for the far-field. Charges and currents directly produce the near-field. However, charges and currents produce EMR only indirectlyrather, in EMR, both the magnetic and electric fields are produced by changes in the other type of field, not directly by charges and currents. This close relationship causes the electric and magnetic fields in EMR to stand in a fixed ratio of strengths to each other, and to be found in phase, with maxima and nodes in each found at the same places in space. EMR carries energysometimes called radiant energythrough space continuously away from the source (this is not true of the near-field part of the EM field). EMR also carries both momentum and angular momentum. These properties may all be imparted to matterwith which it interacts. EMR is produced from other types of energy when created, and it is converted to other types of energy when it is destroyed. The photon is the quantum of the

electromagnetic interaction, and is the basic "unit" or constituent of all forms of EMR. The quantum nature of light becomes more apparent at high frequencies (or high photon energy). Such photons behave more like particles than lower-frequency photons do. In classical physics, EMR is considered to be produced when charged particles areaccelerated by forces acting on them. Electrons are responsible for emission of most EMR because they have low mass, and therefore are easily accelerated by a variety of mechanisms. Rapidly moving electrons are most sharply accelerated when they encounter a region of force, so they are responsible for producing much of the highest frequency electromagnetic radiation observed in nature. Quantum processes can also produce EMR, such as when atomic nuclei undergo gamma decay, and processes such as neutral pion decay. EMR is classified according to the frequency of its wave. The electromagnetic spectrum, in order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength, consists of radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays. The eyes of various organisms sense a small and somewhat variable window of frequencies of EMR called the visible spectrum. The effects of EMR upon biological systems (and also to many other chemical systems, under standard conditions) depends both upon the radiation's power and frequency. For lower frequencies of EMR up to those of visible light (i.e., radio, microwave, infrared), the damage done to cells and also to many ordinary materials under such conditions is determined mainly by heating effects, and thus by the radiation power. By contrast, for higher frequency radiations at ultraviolet frequencies and above (i.e., X-rays and gamma rays) the damage to chemical materials and living cells by EMR is far larger than that done by simple heating, due to the ability of single photons in such high frequency EMR to damage individual molecules chemically.

Properties of EM radiation

Electromagnetic waves can be imagined as a self-propagating transverse oscillating wave of electric and magnetic fields. This 3D diagram shows a plane linearly polarized wave propagating from left to right

This 3D diagram shows a plane linearly polarized wave propagating from left to right. Note that the electric and magnetic fields in such a wave are in-phase with each other, reaching minima and maxima together

The physics of electromagnetic radiation is electrodynamics. Electromagnetism is the physical phenomenon associated with the theory of electrodynamics. Electric and magnetic fields obey the properties of superposition. Thus, a field due to any particular particle or time-varying electric or magnetic field contributes to the fields present in the same space due to other causes. Further, as they are vector fields, all magnetic and electric field vectors add together according to vector addition. For example, in optics two or more coherent lightwaves may interact and by constructive or destructive interference yield a resultant irradiance deviating from the sum of the component irradiances of the individual lightwaves. Since light is an oscillation it is not affected by travelling through static electric or magnetic fields in a linear medium such as a vacuum. However in nonlinear media, such as somecrystals, interactions can occur between light and static electric and magnetic fields these interactions include the Faraday effect and the Kerr effect. In refraction, a wave crossing from one medium to another of different density alters its speed and direction upon entering the new medium. The ratio of the refractive indices of the media determines the degree of refraction, and is summarized by Snell's law. Light of composite wavelengths (natural sunlight) disperses into a visible spectrum passing through a prism, because of the wavelength dependent refractive index of the prism material (dispersion); that is, each component wave within the composite light is bent a different amount. EM radiation exhibits both wave properties and particle properties at the same time (seewaveparticle duality). Both wave and particle characteristics have been confirmed in a large number of experiments. Wave characteristics are more apparent when EM radiation is measured over relatively large timescales and over large distances while particle characteristics are more evident when measuring small timescales and distances. For example, when electromagnetic radiation is absorbed by matter, particle-like properties will be more obvious when the average number of photons in the cube of the relevant wavelength is much smaller than 1. It is not too difficult to experimentally observe non-uniform deposition of energy when light is absorbed, however this alone is not evidence of "particulate" behavior of light. Rather, it reflects the quantum nature of matter.[1] Demonstrating that the light itself is quantized, not merely its interaction with matter, is a more subtle problem. There are experiments in which the wave and particle natures of electromagnetic waves appear in the same experiment, such as the self-interference of a single photon. True single-photon

experiments (in a quantum optical sense) can be done today in undergraduate-level labs. [2] When a single photon is sent through an interferometer, it passes through both paths, interfering with itself, as waves do, yet is detected by a photomultiplier or other sensitive detector only once. A quantum theory of the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter such as electrons is described by the theory ofquantum electrodynamics.

How do scientists determine whether an environmental agent, such as a static electric or magnetic field causes or contributes to the development of cancer? There are certain widely accepted criteria [11, 63, 64], often called the "Hill criteria" [11], that are weighed when assessing epidemiological and laboratory studies of agents that may cause human cancer. Under these criteria one examines the strength, consistency, and specificity of the association between exposure and the incidence of cancer, the evidence for a dose-response relationship, the laboratory evidence, the biological plausibility of the association, and the coherence of the proposed association with what is known about the agent and about cancer.

1.

Strength of association: whether there a clear increase in cancer incidence

associated with exposure. The excess cancer found in epidemiological studies is usually

quantified in a number called the relative risk (RR). This is the incidence of cancer in an "exposed" population divided by the incidence of cancer of an "unexposed" population. Since no one is unexposed to static fields, the comparison is actually "high exposure" versus "low exposure". A RR of 1.0 means no effect, a RR of less than 1.0 means a decreased incidence of cancer in the exposed group, and a RR of greater than 1.0 means an increased incidence of cancer in the exposed group. A strong association is one with a RR of 5 or more. Tobacco smoking, for example, shows a RR for lung cancer 10-30 times that of nonsmokers.

2. 3. 4. 5.

Consistency: whether most studies show about the same increased incidence of the

same type of cancer. Using the smoking example, essentially all studies of smoking and cancer have shown an increased incidence of lung and head-and-neck cancers. Exposure-response relationship: whether cancer incidence increases when the exposure increases. Again, the more a person smokes, the higher the increased incidence of lung cancer. Laboratory evidence: whether there is there experimental evidence suggesting that the cancer is associated with exposure. Epidemiological associations are greatly strengthened when there is laboratory evidence to support such an association. Plausible biological mechanisms: whether there are any biological data or biophysical mechanisms that suggests that there should be an association between the agent and cancer. When it is understood how something causes disease, it is much easier to interpret ambiguous epidemiology. For smoking, while the direct laboratory evidence connecting smoking and cancer was weak at the time of the Surgeon General's report, the association was highly plausible because there were known cancer-causing agents in tobacco smoke.

6.

Coherence: whether the association between exposure to an agent and cancer is

consistent with other things that we know about the biophysics of the agent and the biology of cancer. These criteria must be applied with caution [11, 63, 64]:

It is necessary to examine the entire published literature; it is not acceptable to pick out only those reports that support the existence of a health hazard. It is necessary to directly review the important source documents; it is not acceptable to base judgments solely on academic or regulatory reviews. Satisfying the individual criteria is not a yes-no matter; support for a criterion can be strong, moderate, weak, or non-existent. The criteria must be viewed as a whole; no individual criterion is either necessary or sufficient for concluding that there is a causal relationship between exposure to an agent and a disease.

Wavelength
In physics, the wavelength of a sinusoidal wave is the spatial period of the wavethe distance over which the wave's shape repeats.[1] It is usually determined by considering the distance between consecutive corresponding points of the same phase, such as crests, troughs, or zero crossings, and is a characteristic of both traveling waves and standing waves, as well as other spatial wave patterns.[2][3] Wavelength is commonly designated by the Greek letter lambda (). The concept can also be applied to periodic waves of non-sinusoidal shape.[1][4] The term wavelength is also sometimes applied to modulated waves, and to the

sinusoidal envelopes of modulated waves or waves formed by interference of several sinusoids. [5] The SI unit of wavelength is the meter. Assuming a sinusoidal wave moving at a fixed wave speed, wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency: waves with higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths.[6] Examples of wave-like phenomena are sound waves, light, and water waves. A sound wave is a variation in air pressure, while in light and other electromagnetic radiation the strength of the electric and the magnetic field vary. Water waves are variations in the height of a body of water. In a crystal lattice vibration, atomic positions vary. Wavelength is a measure of the distance between repetitions of a shape feature such as peaks, valleys, or zero-crossings, not a measure of how far any given particle moves. For example, in sinusoidal waves over deep water a particle in the water moves in a circle of the same diameter as the wave height, unrelated to wavelength

Near and far field

The near field (or near-field) and far field (or far-field) and the transition zoneare regions of the electromagnetic field around any object. The different terms for these regions describe the way characteristics of an EM field change with distance from the object containing the charges and currents that are the sources of any electromagnetic (EM) field. The basic reason an EM field changes in character with distance from its source, is that Maxwell's equations prescribe different behaviors for each of the two source-terms of electric fields and also the two source-terms for magnetic fields. Electric fields produced by changes in charge distribution have a different character than those produced by changing magnetic fields. Similarly, Maxwell's equations show a differing behavior for the magnetic fields produced by changing electric currents, versus magnetic fields produced by changing electric fields. For these reasons, in the region very close to currents and charge-separations, the EM field is dominated by electric and magnetic components produced directly by currents and charge-separations, and these effects together produce the EM "near field." However, at distances far from charge-separations and currents, the EM field becomes dominated by the electric and magnetic fields indirectly produced by the change in the other type of field, and thus the EM field is no longer affected (or much affected) by the charges and currents at the EM source. This more distant part of the EM field is the "radiative" field or "far-field," and it is the familiar type ofelectromagnetic radiation seen in "free space," far from any EM field sources (origins).

The far-field thus includes radio waves and microwaves several wavelengths from most types of antennas, as well as all the shorter-wave EM radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum (infrared, light, UV, X-rays, etc.). The latter types of EM radiation in normal experience show far-field behavior almost exclusively, due to their shorter wavelength that gives them a "far-field" character at all but extremely short distances from their sources. For example, visible light shows far-field behavior at all distances larger than one micrometer from its source. In practical mathematical terms, the dominance of far-field behavior with sufficient distance from the source appears because both currents and the oscillating charge-distributions in antennas (and other radiators) produce dipole type field behavior. While these dipole near-field intensities may be very powerful near the source, they decay very rapidly with distance in comparison to EM radiation (the far-field). Radiative far-field intensity decays more slowly with distance, following the inverse square law for total EM power that is typical of all electromagnetic radiation. For this reason, the far-field component of the EM field wins out in intensity with increasing distance. Thus, for objects such as transmitting antennas, electrical or electronic equipment, dielectric materials, or where radiation is scattering from an object, the non-radiative 'near field' components of electromagnetic fields dominate the EM field close to the object, while electromagnetic radiation or 'far field' behaviors dominate at greater distances. The near-field does not suddenly end where the far-field beginsrather, there is a transition zone between these types where both types of EM field-effects may be significant.

Ionizing and Non-Ionizing Radiation Electromagnetic radiation can be classified into two types: ionizing radiation and nonionizing radiation, based on its capability of ionizing atoms and breaking chemical bonds. Ultraviolet and higher frequencies, such as X-rays or gamma rays are ionizing, and these pose their own special hazards: see radiation and radiation poisoning. Nonionizing radiation, discussed here, is associated with electrical and biological hazards.

Ionizing (or ionising) radiation is radiation composed of particles that individually carry enough energy to liberate an electron from an atom or molecule without raising the bulk material to ionization temperature. These interactions can alter chemical bonds and produceions, usually in ion-pairs, that are especially chemically reactive. This greatly magnifies the chemical and biological damage per unit energy of radiation. Ionizing radiation includes cosmic rays, alpha, beta and gamma rays, X-rays, neutrons, and in general any charged particle moving at relativistic speeds. It includes some portion of the ultraviolet spectrum, depending on context. Radiowaves, microwaves, infrared light, and visible light are normally

considered non-ionizing radiation, though high intensity beams can have similar properties as ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation is ubiquitous in the environment, and comes from naturally occurringradioactive materials and cosmic rays. Common artificial sources are artificially produced radioisotopes, X-ray tubes and particle accelerators. Ionizing radiation is invisible and not directly detectable by human senses, so instruments such as Geiger counters are usually required to detect its presence. In some cases it may lead to secondary emission of visible light upon interaction with matter, such as in Cherenkov radiation and radioluminescence. It has many practical uses in medicine, research, construction, and other areas, but presents a health hazard if used improperly. Exposure to ionizing radiation causes damage to livingtissue, and can result in mutation, radiation sickness, cancer, and death.

Non-ionizing (or non-ionising) radiation refers to any type of electromagnetic radiation that does not carry enough energyper quantum to ionize atoms or moleculesthat is, to completely remove an electron from an atom or molecule.[1]Instead of producing charged ions when passing through matter, the electromagnetic radiation has sufficient energy only for excitation, the movement of an electron to a higher energy state. Nevertheless, different biological effects are observed for different types of non-ionizing radiation.[2][3] Near ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, microwave, radio waves, and low-frequency RF (longwave) are all examples of non-ionizing radiation. Visible and near ultraviolet may inducephotochemical reactions, or accelerate radical reactions, such as photochemical aging of varnishes[4] or the breakdown of flavoring compounds in beer to produce the "lightstruck flavor". [5] Near ultraviolet radiation, although technically non-ionizing, may still excite and cause photochemical reactions in some molecules. This happens because at ultraviolet photon energies, molecules may become electronically-excited or promoted to free-radical form, even without ionization taking place.

The light from the Sun that reaches the earth is largely composed of non-ionizing radiation, since the ionizing far-ultraviolet rays have been filtered out by the gases in the atmosphere, particularly oxygen. The remaining ultraviolet radiation from the Sun is in the non-ionizing band, and causes molecular damage by photochemical and free-radical-producing means that do not ionize

Radiation damage
Radiation damage is a term associated with ionizing radiation.

[edit]Causes
This radiation may take several forms:

Cosmic rays and subsequent energetic particles caused by their collision with the

atmosphere and other materials.

Radioactive daughter products (radioisotopes) caused by the collision of cosmic rays with

the atmosphere and other materials, including living tissues.

Energetic particle beams from a particle accelerator. Energetic particles or electro-magnetic radiation (X rays) released from collisions of such

particles with a target, as in an X ray machine or incidentally in the use of a particle accelerator.

Particles or various types of rays released by radioactive decay of elements, which may

be naturally occurring, created by accelerator collisions, or created in a nuclear reactor. They may be manufactured for therapeutic or industrial use or be released accidentally by nuclear accident, or released sententially by a dirty bomb, or released into the atmosphere, ground, or ocean incidental to the explosion of a nuclear weapon for warfare or nuclear testing.

[edit]Effects

on materials and devices

Radiation may affect materials and devices in deleterious ways:

By causing the materials to become radioactive (mainly by neutron activation, or in

presence of high-energy gamma radiation byphotodisintegration).

By nuclear transmutation of the elements within the material including, for example, the

production of Hydrogen and Helium which can in turn alter the mechanical properties of the materials and cause swelling and embrittlement.

By radiolysis (breaking chemical bonds) within the material, which can weaken it, cause it

to swell, polymerize, promote corrosion, cause belittlements, promote cracking or otherwise change its desirable mechanical, optical, or electronic properties.

By formation of reactive compounds, affecting other materials (e.g. ozone cracking by

ozone formed by ionization of air).

By ionization, causing electrical breakdown, particularly in semiconductors employed in

electronic equipment, with subsequent currents introducing operation errors or even permanently damaging the devices. Devices intended for high radiation environments such as the nuclear industry and extra atmospheric (space) applications may be made radiation hard to resist such effects through design, material selection, and fabrication methods. Many of the radiation effects on materials are covered by radiation chemistry.

[edit]Effects

on gases

Exposure to radiation causes chemical changes in gases. The least susceptible to damage are noble gases, where the major concern is the nuclear transmutation with followup chemical reactions of the nuclear reaction products. High-intensity ionizing radiation in air can produce a visible ionized air glow of telltale bluishpurplish color. The glow can be observed e.g. during criticality accidents, around mushroom clouds shortly after a nuclear explosion, or inside of a damaged nuclear reactor like during the Chernobyl disaster. Significant amounts of ozone can be produced. Even small amounts of ozone can cause ozone cracking in many polymers over time, in addition to the damage by the radiation itself.

[edit]Gas-filled tubes
Radiation has detrimental effects on gas-filled tubes, ionizing the gas inside and increasing its electrical conductivity, interfering with the functionality of the tubes. Vacuum tubes are much less sensitive to radiation effects. The ionization effects are exploited in gas-filled radiation detectors, e.g. the Geiger tube. The electrical discharge plasma however tends to cause aging of the gas and/or the detector electrodes.

[edit]Gas-filled radiation detectors

In gas-filled particle detectors, radiation damage to gases plays an important role in the device's aging, especially in devices exposed to high intensity radiation, e.g. detectors for the Large Hadron Collider. Ionization processes require energy above 10 eV, while splitting covalent bonds in molecules and generating free radicals requires only 3-4 eV. The electrical discharges initiated by the ionization events by the particles result in plasma populated by large amount of free radicals. The highly reactive free radicals can recombine back to original molecules, or initiate a chain of free radical polymerizationreactions with other molecules, yielding compounds with increasing molecular

weight. These high molecular weight compounds then precipitate from gaseous phase, forming conductive or non-conductive deposits on the electrodes and insulating surfaces of the detector and distorting its response. Gases containing hydrocarbon quenchers, e.g. argon-methane, are typically sensitive to aging by polymerization; addition of oxygen tends to lower the aging rates. Trace amounts of silicone oils, present from outgassing of silicone elastomers and especially from traces of silicone lubricants, tend to decompose and form deposits of silicon crystals on the surfaces. Gaseous mixtures of argon (or xenon) with carbon dioxide and optionally also with 2-3% of oxygen are highly tolerant to high radiation fluxes. The oxygen is added as noble gas with carbon dioxide has too high transparency for high-energy photons; ozone formed from the oxygen is a strong absorber of ultraviolet photons. Carbon tetrafluoride can be used as a component of the gas for high-rate detectors; the fluorine radicals produced during the operation however limit the choice of materials for the chambers and electrodes (e.g. gold electrodes are required, as the fluorine radicals attack metals, forming fluorides). Addition of carbon tetrafluoride can however eliminate the silicon deposits. Presence of hydrocarbons with carbon tetrafluoride leads to polymerization. A mixture of argon, carbon tetrafluoride, and carbon dioxide shows low aging in high hadron flux.[1]

[edit]Effects

on liquids

Like gases, liquids lack fixed internal structure; the effects of radiation is therefore mainly limited to radiolysis, altering the chemical composition of the liquids. As with gases, one of the primary mechanisms is formation of free radicals. All liquids are subject to radiation damage, with few exotic exceptions; e.g. molten sodium, where there are no chemical bonds to be disrupted, and liquid hydrogen fluoride, which produces gaseous hydrogen and fluorine, which spontaneously react back to hydrogen fluoride.

[edit]Effects on water
Water subjected to ionizing radiation forms free radicals of hydrogen and hydroxyl, which can recombine to form gaseous hydrogen,oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals, and peroxide radicals. In living organisms, which are composed mostly of water, majority of the damage is caused by the reactive oxygen species, free radicals produced from water. The free radicals attack the biomoleculesforming structures within the cells, causing oxidative stress (a cumulative damage which may be significant enough to cause the cell death, or may cause DNA damage possibly leading to cancer). In cooling systems of nuclear reactors, the formation of free oxygen would promote corrosion and is counteracted by addition of hydrogen to the cooling water. [2] The hydrogen is not consumed as for each molecule reacting with oxygen one molecule is liberated by radiolysis of water; the excess hydrogen just serves to shift the reaction equilibriums by providing the initial hydrogen radicals. The reducing environment in pressurized water reactors is less prone to buildup of oxidative

species. The chemistry of boiling water reactorcoolant is more complex, as the environment can be oxidizing. Most of the radiolytic activity occurs in the core of the reactor where the neutron flux is highest; the bulk of energy is deposited in water from fast neutrons and gamma radiation, the contribution of thermal neutrons is much lower. In air-free water, the concentration of hydrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen peroxide reaches steady state at about 200 Gy of radiation. In presence of dissolved oxygen, the reactions continue until the oxygen is consumed and the equilibrium is shifted. Neutron activation of water leads to buildup of low concentrations of nitrogen species; due to the oxidizing effects of the reactive oxygen species, these tend to be present in the form of nitrate anions. In reducing environments, ammonia may be formed. Ammonia ions may be however also subsequently oxidized to nitrates. Other species present in the coolant water are the oxidized corrosion products (e.g. chromates) and fission products (e.g. pertechnetate and periodate anions, uranyl and neptunyl cations).[3] Absorption of neutrons in hydrogen nuclei leads to buildup of deuterium and tritium in the water. Behavior of supercritical water, important for thesupercritical water reactors, differs from the radiochemical behavior of liquid water and steam and is currently under investigation.[4] The magnitude of the effects of radiation on water is dependent on the type and energy of the radiation, namely its linear energy transfer. A gas-free water subjected to low-LET gamma rays yields almost no radiolysis products and sustains an equilibrium with their low concentration. HighLET alpha radiation produces larger amounts of radiolysis products. In presence of dissolved oxygen, radiolysis always occurs. Dissolved hydrogen completely suppresses radiolysis by lowLET radiation while radiolysis still occurs with The presence of reactive oxygen species has strongly disruptive effect on dissolved organic chemicals. This is exploited in groundwater remediation by electron beam treatment.[5]

[edit]Countermeasures
Two main approaches to reduce radiation damage are reducing the amount of energy deposited in the sensitive material (e.g. by shielding, distance from the source, or spatial orientation), or modification of the material to be less sensitive to radiation damage (e.g. by adding antioxidants, stabilizers, or choosing a more suitable material). In addition to the electronic device hardening mentioned above, some degree of protection may be obtained by shielding, usually with the interposition of high density materials (particularlylead, where space is critical, or concrete where space is available) between the radiation source and areas to be protected. For biological effects of substances such as radioactive iodine the ingestion of non-radioactive isotopes may substantially reduce the biological uptake of the radioactive form, and chelation therapy may be applied to accelerate the removal of radioactive materials formed from heavy metals from the body by natural processes.

Hazards
Types of hazards
[edit]Electrical

hazards

Strong radiation can induce current capable of delivering an electric shock to persons or animals. It can also overload and destroy electrical equipment. The induction of currents by oscillating magnetic fields is also the way in which solar storms disrupt the operation of electrical and electronic systems, causing damage to and even the explosion of power distribution transformers,[1] blackouts (as in 1989), and interference with electromagnetic signals (e.g. radio, TV, and telephone signals).[2]

Biological hazards
The best understood biological effect of electromagnetic fields is to cause dielectric heating. For example, touching or standing around an antenna while a high-power transmitter is in operation can cause severe burns. These are exactly the kind of burns that would be caused inside a microwave oven. This heating effect varies with the power and the frequency of the electromagnetic energy. A measure of the heating effect is the specific absorption rate or SAR, which has units of watts per kilogram (W/kg). The IEEE[3] and many national governments have established safety limits for exposure to various frequencies of electromagnetic energy based on SAR, mainly based on ICNIRP Guidelines,[4]which guard against thermal damage. There are publications which support the existence of complex biological effects of weaker nonthermal electromagnetic fields (seeBioelectromagnetics), including weak ELF magnetic fields[5] [6] and modulated RF and microwave fields.[7] Fundamental mechanisms of the interaction between biological material and electromagnetic fields at non-thermal levels are not fully understood.[8] A 2009 study at the University of Basel in Switzerland found that intermittent (but not continuous) exposure of human cells to a 50 Hz electromagnetic field at a flux density of 1 mT (or 10 G) induced a slight but significant increase of DNA fragmentation in the Comet assay.[9] However that level of exposure is already above current established safety exposure limits.

Positions of governments and scientific bodies

[edit]World

Health Organization

In May 2011, the WHO's International Agency for Research on Cancer published a review of the evidence on health risks of EMF, and concluded that there was limited evidence that cellphone users might be at increased risk of glioma and acoustic neuroma, and that there was inadequate evidence of any other health risks posed by EMF.[10][11] This "possibly carcinogenic" classification was often misinterpreted, meaning only "that there is very little scientific evidence as to the carcinogenicity of cell phone use".[12] [edit]Health

Canada

"There is no conclusive evidence of any harm caused by exposures [to electric and magnetic fields] at levels found in Canadian homes and schools, including those located just outside the boundaries of power line corridors."[13] [edit]U.S.

military definition

In Federal Standard 1037C, the United States government adopts the following definition: Electromagnetic radiation hazards (RADHAZ or EMR hazards): Hazards caused by a transmitter/antenna installation that generates electromagnetic radiation in the vicinity of ordnance, personnel, or fueling operations in excess of established safe levels or increases the existing levels to a hazardous level; or a personnel, fueling, or ordnance installation located in an area that is illuminated by electromagnetic radiation at a level that is hazardous to the planned operations or occupancy. These hazards will exist when an electromagnetic field of sufficient intensity is generated to: (a) induce or otherwise couple currents or voltages large enough to initiate electroexplosive devices or other sensitive explosive components of weapon systems, ordnance, or explosive devices; (b) cause harmful or injurious effects to humans and wildlife; (c) create sparks having sufficient magnitude to ignite flammable mixtures of materials that must be handled in the affected area. Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms

Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Radiation

Here are some of the biological changes caused by electromagnetic radiation, as observed and reported in various studies (most recent first): Protein Changes in Skin. Ten women volunteered to participate in a study in which radiation (900mH) from GSM cell phones was applied to them for one hour to simulate a phone call. Scientists then screened their skin cells for any stress reactions. They looked at 580 different proteins and found two which were substantially affected. (One was increased by 89% and the other decreased by 32%). New Scientist February 23, 2008

Excited Brain Cells. Researchers from Fatebenefratelli Hospital in Isola Tiberina,found that the electromagnetic field emitted by cell phones can cause some cells in the brain's cortex (adjacent to the side of phone use) to become excited for about an hour, while others become inhibited. Health24 - June 27, 2006 DNA Damage. German research group Verum studied the effect of radiation on human and animal cells. After being exposed to cell phone frequencies the cells showed increased breaks in their DNA. These DNA breaks could not always be repaired by the cells. The damage would therefore be passed on to future cells which could predispose them to becoming cancerous. USA Today December 21, 2004 Brain Cell Damage. A study of the effects of cell phone frequencies (applied at non-thermal intensity) on rat brains showed damage to the neurons (brain cells) in various brain parts, including the cortex, hippocampus and basal ganglia. June 2003 issue of Environmental Health Perspectives Aggressive Growth in Leukemia Cells Researchers at the National Research Council in Bologna, Italy found that Leukemia cells exposed to cell phone frequencies (900mH) for 48 hours replicated more aggressively. New Scientist October 24, 2002 Increased Blood Pressure. Researchers in Germany found that one-time use of a cell phone for 35 minutes could cause an increase in resting blood pressure of between 5 and 10mm Hg. Lancet June 20, 1998

Harmful Effects of ElectroMagnetic Radiation

Here are some of the pathological (disease producing) effects attributed to electromagnetic radiation and reported in the media (most recent first): Salivary Gland Cancer. An Israeli study reports that people who used cell phones for 22 hours a month or more were 50 percent more likely to develop parotid gland cancer than those who used cell phones infrequently or never. Health24 February 19, 2008 Brain Tumour. An analysis of several previous studies has concluded that cell phone use over 10 years causes an increased risk of acquiring certain types of brain tumour (2.4 times for acoustic neuroma and 2 times for gliomas). News24 October 3, 2007 Lymphatic Cancer and Bone Marrow Cancer.Researchers from the University of Tasmania and the University of Bristol studied records of 850 patients who had been diagnosed with lymphatic and bone marrow cancers. They concluded that people living within 300 metres of a high voltage power line for extended periods

(particularly in childhood) were up to five times more likely to develop these diseases later in life. Internal Medicine Journal September 2007 Physorg.com August 24, 2007 Miscarriage. Researchers in California found that EMFs from electrical appliances (such as domestic vacuum cleaners, hairdryers and food mixers) could significantly increase the risk of miscarriage. (Epidemiology January 2002) Suicide. American researchers found that the rate of suicide among 5000 electricity utility workers who were exposed to extremely low frequency EMFs was double that of a control group of the same size. The effect was particularly noticeable among young workers.(Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine March 15, 2000) Asthma. A study in California followed 626 children for 13 years. It found that magnetic fields greater than 0.3 mG (average) during pregnancy increased the child's risk of getting asthma by age 13. A clear dose-response was found. For every 1mG increase in EMF there was a 15% increased rate of asthma in the children. This means, for example, that children of mothers whose average exposure was 2mG during pregnancy were 3.5 times as likely to suffer from asthma during childhood. These are known effects of EMF. What others are currently unknown, unconfirmed or unreported?

Why Is EM Radation Exposure So Dangerous?

You may not realize it, but your own body uses electromagnetic fields to function properly. In fact, research has demonstrated that every cell in your body may have its own EMF.

In his book The Body Electric, researcher and author Robert Becker demonstrates that our cells actually communicate with each other via bioelectrical signals and electromagnetic fields. These natural EMFs help regulate important biochemical processes of all kinds. Maintaining balance in those cellular electromagnetic fields is crucial to your physical health.

What Are The Dangers Of EM Radiation To Humans?

Unfortunately, your body can also be influenced by the powerful artificial EM Radiation around you. Thats where the trouble starts.

How Does Harmful Electromagnetic Radiation Get Into Your Body?

When it comes to magnetic radiation (which is part of any EMFsee EMF explained for more on that), the body is as easily penetrated as air. This means if you are near a powerful EMF, electromagnetic radiation isnt just around you, its inside you. According to Dr. Becker, your bodys electrical signals are well within the range of those that can be stimulated by ambient radio waves, microwaves and other forms of electromagnetic radiation. That harmful, unnatural type of stimulation can seriously impact your body.

EM Radiation Can Cause Health Chaos

Artificial EMFs change the frequency of your body's electromagnetic fields through a process called entrainment (or sympathetic resonance). Entrainment is the tendency of an object to vibrate at the same frequency as something outside of it. In other words, powerful artificial EMFs overwhelm your bodys own electrical fields, changing their frequency and distorting the balance of the body's electromagnetic field and its communication systems. This causes physical, mental and emotional chaos. The danger doesnt always pass once you get away from the strong electromagnetic field. Thats because biological systems have been proven to store electromagnetic radiation within the cells in the form of electromagnetic oscillations. These oscillations can stubbornly remain inside you, wreaking havoc with your bodys most important processes.

Compounding this problem, metallic objects all around us act as antennae. These include electrical circuits, telephone wiring, water and gas pipes, even your keys and jewelry, which collect and re-radiate these disorienting energy waves. The highest frequency energy waves (X-rays, gamma rays and others) can break chemical and molecular bonds, and can literally rip atoms apart, disrupting the basic biochemical structures of life. The healthy human body resonates at around 10 hertz. Frequencies above that create biological stress, tissue damage and serious health problems.

Have There Been Any Electromagnetic Radiation Studies?

Yes. Thousands of studies worldwide have shown that overexposure to EMFs can lead to weakened immunities, lowered resistance to bacterial and viral infections and devastating illnesses like cancer.

The BioInitiative Working Group sounds the alarm

An International working group of leading scientists, researchers and public health policy professionals is bringing scientific concerns about the radiation to light. Their 2007 report, the BioInitiative Report, concludes that the existing standards for public safety are completely inadequate to protect your health. The report includes studies showing evidence that electromagnetic fields: Affects gene and protein expression (Transcriptomic and Proteomic Research)

Have Has genotoxic effects RFR and ELF DNA damage Induces stress response (Stress Proteins) Affects immune function Affects Neurology and behavior Causes childhood cancers (Leukemia) Impacts melatonin production; Alzheimers Disease; Breast Cancer Promotes breast cancer (Melatonin links in laboratory and cell studies)

Other well-known studies link EMFs to: Enzyme changes that affect DNA and cell growth; possible result is cancer and birth defects.

Changed metabolism and increased cell growth. Fetal abnormalities, probably caused by enzyme changes. Gene expression changes, which creates stress on your body and even result in

cancer.

Increased production of stress proteins within cells, linked to Alzheimers disease. Chronic stress, which can lead to heart conditions. Neuro-hormone changes, which can result in memory loss and impaired brain

function.

Electro-smog disturbs the growth of cells and the information flow between cells.

The Higher The EMF Frequency, The More Serious The Health Effect.
The fields that appear to be of most concern are those that are very strong, near the body, or of high frequency.

Electromagnetic Radiation In Your Home

The Special Dangers Of Cell Phone Electromagnetic Radiation

Because cellphones have such powerful EMFs (usually in the microwave range!) and are held to the head or kept close to the body, they are especially dangerous. (See cellphone studies for links to specific research.)

Cellphones emit two kinds of EMFs - microwave electromagnetic radiation from the

antenna, and more EMFs from the phone body both are harmful.

20-80% of the radiation from a phones antenna penetrates up to 2 inches into the

adult brain.

Cell phones have thermal effects (they heat biological tissue) as well as non-

thermal effects (affecting natural EMF frequencies)

Studies have shown that people who sleep with a cellphone by the bed have poor

REM sleep, leading to impaired learning and memory. Long-term effects remain to be seen.

When the cellphone signal is held next to the head, brainwaves are altered a full

70% of the time.

Many insurance companies are so alarmed by the evidence that they now exclude

health issues related to cell phone radiation from coverage.

Most brain surgeons limit their cellphone use, and counsel patients never to hold

them to their ears. Yes, electromagnetic radiation can harm human health, and the dangers are all around us. Read what Doctors have to say: If Mobile Phones Were a Type of Food, They Simply Would Not be Licensed," ~Dr. Gerald Hyland, The Lancet The evidence for risks from prolonged cell phone and cordless phone use is quite strong. For people who have used them for 10 years or longer, mainly on one side of the head, the risk of malignant brain tumor is doubled for adults and is even higher for persons with first use before age 20. ~Brain tumor specialist Dr. Lennart Hardell, MD, PhD, Orebro University Hospital in Sweden

There is a strong evidence that EMFs and radio/microwave frequencies are associated with accelerated aging (enhanced cell death and cancer) and moods, depression, suicide, anger, rage and violence, primarily through alteration of cellular calcium ions and the melatonin/serotonin balance. ~Dr. Neil Cherry of Lincoln University, New Zealand

Cell Phone Radiation Electromagnetic Radiation & Health

YOU SHOULD KNOW - Approximately 20-80% of the cell phone radiation from your mobile devices antenna penetrates up to 2 inches into the adult brain.

Penetration of radiation on brain of an adult, a 10 year old and a 5 year old

Cellphone Electromagnetic Radiation & Health Hazards

Anytime the power is turned on, cell phones emit electromagnetic radiation even in stand-by mode and regardless if carried on belts, in pockets or purses, expose other areas of the body to harmful ELF radiation, as well.

Some of the potential side effects of exposure to electromagnetic radiation:

Blurry Vision

Headaches Nausea Fatigue Neck Pain Memory Loss Leukemia Rare Brain Cancers Enzyme Changes That Affect DNA Birth Defects Changes In Metabolism Increased Risk For Alzheimers Disease Increased Risk For Heart Conditions Neurological Hormone Changes Linked Impaired Brain Function And More

Additional studies have shown that people who sleep with a cellphone by the bed have poor REM sleep, leading to impaired learning and memory. This is related to melatonin production that is impaired by the ELF radiation emitting from your nearby cell phone or wireless device.

Electromagnetic Radiation and Health Issues

As confirmed medical studies show, that may be exactly what youre doing with every use of your mobile phone, allowing the electromagnetic fields (ELF) it constantly produces to bombard your body and your brain. Side effects from cell phone radiation ranging from occasional headaches and fatigue to enzyme changes that affect DNA and cell growth and can result in cancer. But, thats not all. Cellphones emit electromagnetic radiation from its antenna, as well as from the circuitry and battery all of which can cause harmful biological effects

Every cell phone model sold in the United States has a specific measurement of how much microwave energy from the phone can penetrate the brain. Studies have shown that if the cellphone signal is held next to the brain there are changes in the brainwaves in 70% of people. This testing was done at a level of about 2 microwatts per sq. cm., which is only a fraction of the actual cell phone radiation exposure experienced from the typical mobile device. Such ongoing studies have prompted the US Government to set safe guidelines for cellphone manufacturers to adhere to, but simply put, this just isnt enough. And with your health at risk, can you really afford to ignore the mounting documented evidence more than 2,000 research studies from around the world, all confirming that the cell phone radiation produced by your PDA could be to blame for:

Keep in mind such devastating health risks mount with every use of your iphone, blackberry, PDA, mobile phone or other mobile device, making the likelihood that you or someone you love will suffer needlessly simply far too great to ignore. You may have recent read about electromagnetic radiation exclusion and insurance in the same sentence. Yes, it is true. Many insurance companies are now excluding health issues related to cell phone radiation exposure. This mean if you have a health issue related to wireless phone radiation exposure you may not be covered. Most people cannot be without a cellphone. Now more than ever you need a way to protect yourself and your loved ones. SafeSpace has the solution. With years of research and development

SafeSpace now introduces the Cell Phone and Wireless Communication Protection Device. It fits any budget, costing less than a weeks worth of morning cappuccinos.

Protecting Your Health Easy, Affordable

Thanks to SafeSpaces proven technology, you can continue to use your cellphone or wireless devices with the peace of mind that comes from knowing you are protected from the countless devastating side-effects linked to exposure to the dangers of electromagnetic radiation these devices emit. (See SafeSpace Proven Technology for more details)

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Cell Phone Patch

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EMF measurement
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Electric field probe FP2000 (range 100 kHz 2500 MHz)

EMF measurements are measurements of ambient (surrounding)electromagnetic fields that are taken with particular sensors or probes, such as EMF meters. These probes can be generally considered as antennas although with different characteristics. In fact probes should not perturb the electromagnetic field and must prevent coupling and reflection as much possible in order to obtain a precise measure. EMF measurements are nowadays becoming important and widespread in different sectors to assess environmental and human exposure to non-ionizing radiation in many contexts. There are two main EMF measurements types:

broadband measurements performed using a broadband probe, that is a device which

senses any signal across a wide range of frequencies and is usually made with three independent diode detectors;

frequency selective measurements in which the measurement system consists of a field

antenna and a frequency selective receiver or spectrum analyzer allowing to monitor the frequency range of interest. EMF probes may respond to fields only on one axis, or may be tri-axial, showing componets of the field in three directions at once. Amplified, active, probes can improve measurement precision and sensitivity but their active components may limit their speed of response.

[edit]Ideal

isotropic measurements

E-field projections on an orthogonal reference frame

Measurements of the EMF are obtained using an E-field sensor or H-field sensor which can be isotropic or mono-axial, active or passive. A mono-axial, omnidirectional probe is a device which senses the Electric (short dipole) or Magnetic field linearly polarized in a given direction. Using a mono-axial probe implies the need for three measurements taken with the sensor axis set up along three mutually orthogonal directions, in a X, Y, Zconfiguration. As an example, it can be used a probe which senses the Electric field component parallel to the direction of its axis of symmetry. In these conditions, where E is the amplitude of incident electric field, and is the amplitude of the angle between sensor axis and direction of electric field E, the signal detected is proportional to |E|cos (right). This allows to obtain the correct total amplitude of the field in the form of

or, in case of the magnetic field

An isotropic(tri-axial) probe simplifies the measurement procedure because the total field value is determined with three measures taken without changing sensor position: this results from the geometry of the device which is made by three independent broadband sensing elements placed orthogonal to each other. In practice, each elements output is measured in three consecutive time intervals supposing field components being time stationary .

Isotropic antenna AT3000 (passive probe, 20 MHz 3000 MHz)

[edit]Meters
An EMF meter is a scientific instrument for measuring electromagnetic fields (abbreviated as EMF). Most meters measure the electromagnetic radiation flux density (DC fields) or the change in an electromagnetic field over time (AC fields), essentially the same as a radio antenna, but with quite different detection characteristics. The two largest categories are single axis and tri-axis. Single axis meters are cheaper than a tri-axis meters, but take longer to complete a survey because the meter only

measures one dimension of the field. Single axis instruments have to be tilted and turned on all three axes to obtain a full measurement. A tri-axis meter measures all three axes simultaneously, but these models tend to be more expensive. Electromagnetic fields can be generated by AC or DC currents. An EMF meter can measure AC electromagnetic fields, which are usually emitted from man-made sources such as electrical wiring, while gaussmeters or magnetometers measure DC fields, which occur naturally in Earth's geomagnetic field and are emitted from other sources where direct current is present.

An example of an EMF meter.

[edit]Sensitivity
As most electromagnetic fields encountered in everyday situation are those generated by household or industrial appliances, the majority of EMF meters available are calibrated to measure 50 and 60 Hz alternating fields (the frequency of US and European mains electricity). There are other meters which can measure fields alternating at as low as 20 Hz, however these tend to be much more expensive and are only used for specific research purposes.

[edit]Active

and passive sensors

Active sensors are sensing devices which contain active components; usually this solution allows for a more precise measurement with respect to passive components. In fact, a passive receiving antenna collects energy from the electromagnetic field being measured and makes it available at a RF cable connector. This signal then goes to the spectrum analyzer but the field characteristics can be someway modified by the presence of the cable, especially in near-fieldconditions. On the other hand an effective solution is to transfer on an optical carrier, the electric (or magnetic) field component sensed with an active probe. The basic components of the system are a receiving electro-optical antenna which is able to transfer, on an optical

carrier, the individual electric (or magnetic) field component picked up and to return it in the form of an electrical signal at the output port of an opto-electric converter.

The modulated optical carrier is transferred by means of a fiber-optic link to a converter which extracts the modulating signal and converts it back to an electrical signal. The electrical signal thus obtained can be then sent to a spectrum analyzer with a 50 common RF cable.

[edit]Isotropic

deviation

Short dipole radiation pattern

Isotropic deviation, in EMF measurements, is a parameter that describes the accuracy in measuring field intensities irrespective of the probes orientation. If the field is obtained by three measurements in an orthogonal X, Y, Z configuration in the form:

a sufficient condition for the expression to be true for every three orthogonal coordinates (X,Y,Z) is for the probe radiation pattern to be as close as possible to ideal short dipole pattern, called sin : , where A is function of frequency. The difference between ideal dipole radiation pattern and real probe pattern is called isotropic deviation