The cell membrane or plasma membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the

outside environment.[1] The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells. [2] It basically protects the cell from outside forces. It consists of the lipid bilayer with embedded proteins. Cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity and cell signaling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures, including the cell wall, glycocalyx, and intracellular cytoskeleton. Cell membranes can be artificially reassembled The cell wall is the tough, usually flexible but sometimes fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells. It is located outside the cell membrane and provides these cells with structural support and protection, in addition to acting as a filtering mechanism. A major function of the cell wall is to act as a pressure vessel, preventing over-expansion when water enters the cell. Cell walls are found in plants, bacteria, fungi, algae, and some archaea. Animals and protozoa do not have cell walls. A nuclear membrane (also known as the nuclear envelope, nucleolemma or karyotheca) is a double lipid bilayer that encloses the genetic material in eukaryotic cells. The nuclear membrane also serves as the physical barrier, separating the contents of the nucleus (DNA in particular) from the cytoplasm. Many nuclear pores are inserted in the nuclear envelope, which facilitate and regulate the exchange of materials (proteins such as transcription factors, and RNA) between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Each of the two membranes is composed of a lipid bilayer. The outer membrane is continuous with the rough endoplasmic reticulum while the inner nuclear membrane is the primary residence of several inner nuclear membrane (INM) proteins. The outer and inner nuclear membrane are fused at the site of nuclear pore complexes. The structure of the membrane also consists of ribosomes. The three layers of the nuclear membrane proteins. The nuclear pore complex (NPC) transverses the inner and outer nuclear membranes. Perinuclear space is clearly visible. INM proteins, including SUN1, LAP2, Emerin, MAN1 and LBR, are mostly associated with the nuclear lamina. Emerin, LAP2 and MAN1 harbor a LEM domain which interacts with BAF (barrier-toautointegration factor), a chromatin-binding protein. The nuclear lamina forms a meshwork underlying the inner nuclear membrane. Chi et al. Journal of Biomedical Science 2009.[1] The inner nuclear membrane is connected to the nuclear lamina, a network of intermediate filaments composed of various lamins (A, B1, B2, & C). The lamina acts as a site of attachment for chromosomes and provides structural stability to the nucleus. The lamins have been associated with various genetic disorders collectively termed laminopathies. The space between the two membranes that make up the nuclear membrane itself is called the perinuclear space (also called the perinuclear cisterna, NE Lumen), and is usually about 20 40 nm wide. The nuclear membrane has been postulated to play a role in the organization and transcriptional activity of chromatin. The envelope's form is changing in cell reproduction, and is reforming after the division to daughter cells is completed

Plasmodesmata (singular: plasmodesma) are microscopic channels which traverse the cell walls of plant cells[2][3] and some algal cells, enabling transport and communication between them. Species that have plasmodesmata include members of the Charophyceae, Charales and Coleochaetales (which are all algae), as well as all embryophytes, better known as land plants.[4] Unlike animal cells, every plant cell is surrounded by a polysaccharide cell wall. Neighbouring plant cells are therefore separated by a pair of cell walls and the intervening lamella, forming an extracellular domain known as the apoplast. Although cell walls are permeable to small soluble proteins and other solutes, plasmodesmata enable direct, regulated, symplastic intercellular transport of substances between cells. There are two forms of plasmodesmata: primary plasmodesmata, which are formed during cell division, and secondary plasmodesmata, which can form between mature cells.[5] A vacuole is a membrane-bound organelle which is present in all plant and fungal cells and some protist, animal[1] and bacterial cells.[2] Vacuoles are essentially enclosed compartments which are filled with water containing inorganic and organic molecules including enzymes in solution, though in certain cases they may contain solids which have been engulfed. Vacuoles are formed by the fusion of multiple membrane vesicles and are effectively just larger forms of these.[3] The organelle has no basic shape or size; its structure varies according to the needs of the cell. The function and importance of vacuoles varies greatly according to the type of cell in which they are present, having much greater prominence in the cells of plants, fungi and certain protists than those of animals and bacteria. In general, the functions of the vacuole include:

Isolating materials that might be harmful or a threat to the cell Containing waste products Containing water in plant cells Maintaining internal hydrostatic pressure or turgor within the cell Maintaining an acidic internal pH Containing small molecules Exporting unwanted substances from the cell Allows plants to support structures such as leaves and flowers due to the pressure of the central vacuole In seeds, stored proteins needed for germination are kept in 'protein bodies', which are modified vacuoles

The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi complex or Golgi body, is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. Part of the cellular endomembrane system, the Golgi apparatus packages proteins inside the cell before they are sent to their destination; it is particularly important in the processing of proteins for secretion. The ribosome is a large complex molecule which is responsible for catalyzing the formation of proteins from individual amino acids using messenger RNA as a template.[1] This process is known as translation. Ribosomes are found in all living cells. The sequence of DNA encoding for a protein may be copied many times into messenger RNA (mRNA) chains of a similar sequence. Ribosomes can bind to an mRNA chain and use it as a template for determining the correct sequence of amino acids in a particular protein. Amino acids are selected, collected and carried to the ribosome by transfer RNA (tRNA molecules), which enter one part of the ribosome and bind to the messenger RNA chain. The attached amino acids are then linked together by another part of the ribosome.

A ribosome is made from complexes of RNAs and proteins called ribonucleoproteins. Each ribosome is divided into two subunits. The smaller subunit binds to the mRNA pattern, while the larger subunit binds to the tRNA and the amino acids. When a ribosome finishes reading an mRNA molecule, these two subunits split apart. Ribosomes have been classified as ribozymes, because the ribosomal RNA seems to be most important for the peptidyl transferase activity that links amino acids together. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle of cells in eukaryotic organisms that forms an interconnected network of tubules, vesicles, and cisternae. Rough endoplasmic reticula are involved in the synthesis of proteins and is also a membrane factory for the cell, while smooth endoplasmic reticula are involved in the synthesis of lipids, including oils, phospholipids and steroids, metabolism of carbohydrates, regulation of calcium concentration and detoxification of drugs and poisons. Sarcoplasmic reticula solely regulate calcium levels In cell biology, a mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells.[1] These organelles range from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometer (m) in diameter. Mitochondria are sometimes described as "cellular power plants" because they generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy.[2] In addition to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are involved in a range of other processes, such as signaling, cellular differentiation, cell death, as well as the control of the cell cycle and cell growth.[3] Mitochondria have been implicated in several human diseases, including mitochondrial disorders[4] and cardiac dysfunction,[5] and may play a role in the aging process Lysosomes are cellular organelles that contain acid hydrolase enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris. These are non-specific. They can be described as the stomach of the cell. They are found in animal cells, while their existence in yeasts and plants are disputed. Some biologists say the same roles are performed by lytic vacuoles,[1], while others suggest there is strong evidence that lysosomes are indeed in some plant cells. [2]Lysosomes digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulf viruses or bacteria. The membrane around a lysosome allows the digestive enzymes to work at the 4.5 pH they require. Lysosomes fuse with vacuoles and dispense their enzymes into the vacuoles, digesting their contents. They are created by the addition of hydrolytic enzymes to early endosomes from the Golgi apparatus. Lysosomes are the cell's waste disposal system and can digest some compounds. They are used for the digestion of macromolecules from phagocytosis (ingestion of other dying cells or larger extracellular material, like foreign invading microbes), endocytosis (where receptor proteins are recycled from the cell surface), and autophagy (where in old or unneeded organelles or proteins, or microbes that have invaded the cytoplasm are delivered to the lysosome). Autophagy may also lead to autophagic cell death, a form of programmed self-destruction, or autolysis, of the cell, which means that the cell is digesting itself The cytoplasm is the gel-like substance residing between the cell membrane holding all the cell's internal sub-structures (called organelles), except for the nucleus. All the contents of the cells of prokaryote organisms (which lack a cell nucleus) are contained within the cytoplasm. Within the cells of eukaryote organisms the contents of the cell nucleus are separated from the cytoplasm, and are then called the nucleoplasm. The cytoplasm is about 70% to 90% water and usually transparent.

It is within the cytoplasm that most cellular activities occur, such as many metabolic pathways including glycolysis, and processes such as cell division. The inner, granular mass is called the endoplasm and the outer, clear and glassy layer is called the cell cortex or the ectoplasm. The part of the cytoplasm that is not held within organelles is called the cytosol. The cytosol is a complex mixture of cytoskeleton filaments, dissolved molecules, and water that fills much of the volume of a cell. The cytosol is a gel, with a network of fibers dispersed in water. Due to this network of fibres and high concentrations of dissolved macromolecules, such as proteins, an effect called macromolecular crowding occurs and the cytosol does not act as an ideal solution. This crowding effect alters how the components of the cytosol interact with each other. Nucleus is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes. The genes within these chromosomes are the cell's nuclear genome. The function of the nucleus is to maintain the integrity of these genes and to control the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression the nucleus is, therefore, the control center of the cell. The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, a double membrane that encloses the entire organelle and unifies its contents from the cellular cytoplasm, and the nucleoskeleton (which includes nuclear lamina), a meshwork within the nucleus that adds mechanical support, much like the cytoskeleton, which supports the cell as a whole. Because the nuclear membrane is impermeable to large molecules, nuclear pores are required to allow movement of molecules across the envelope. These pores cross both of the membranes, providing a channel that allows free movement of small molecules and ions. The movement of larger molecules such as proteins is carefully controlled, and requires active transport regulated by carrier proteins. Nuclear transport is crucial to cell function, as movement through the pores is required for both gene expression and chromosomal maintenance. The interior of the nucleus does not contain any membrane-bound subcompartments, its contents are not uniform, and a number of subnuclear bodies exist, made up of unique proteins, RNA molecules, and particular parts of the chromosomes. The best-known of these is the nucleolus, which is mainly involved in the assembly of ribosomes. After being produced in the nucleolus, ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm where they translate mRNA. The nucleolus (plural nucleoli) is a non-membrane bound structure[1] composed of proteins and nucleic acids found within the nucleus. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is transcribed and assembled within the nucleolus. The nucleolus ultrastructure can be visualized through an electron microscope, while the organization and dynamics can be studied through fluorescent protein tagging and fluorescent recovery after photobleaching (FRAP). Malfunction of nucleoli can be the cause for several human diseases. It takes up to about 25% of the nuclear volume.

Chloroplasts are those subunit in a plant cell, which produce food for a plant through the process of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are somewhat similar to mitochondria found in animal cells which can produce energy. They reproduce by the process of division of cells and have their own genetic systems. It's the chloroplasts which convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates, which are consumed by plants. Moreover amino acids, lipid components and fatty acids of the cell membranes are synthesized by chloroplasts. In addition to that, they reduce nitrogen into ammonia and other organic compounds. Once you have got the basic idea, let's take a look at how they function in a plant cell. Chloroplast Function in a Plant Cell

Chloroplast contain an important component called chlorophyll, which is responsible for production of food. It's the chlorophyll which gives the chloroplast and in turn, leaves its characteristic green color. Chlorophyll contained in the chloroplasts is responsible for absorbing sunlight. It's through the process of photosynthesis that a plant makes food for itself. The process includes absorbing the energy from the sun so as to create sugar. When sunlight hits a chloroplast, the chlorophyll in it uses the energy and in combination with carbon dioxide and water forms sugar and oxygen. Plants use these sugars for survival and the oxygen released is used by animals to breathe.