TMA 9 1a) Operant conditioning is learning due to the consequences of voluntary behavior, through positive and negative reinforcement.

Skinner claimed that all behavior is learned as a result of consequences in our environment. In the famous skinner box experiments he would introduce a hungry rat into the box. Inside the box was a lever which, when pressed, would deliver a pellet of food. When the rat pressed the lever, a pellet of food was dropped onto the tray. The rat soon learned that pressing the lever would result in food (a reward). Skinner observed that, as a consequence of its actions (receiving a pellet of food), the rat continued to display this new learned behavior- the rats behavior had been positively reinforced. 1b) In EEG electrodes are not often sensitive enough to pick out individual action potentials of single neurons, so therefore when investigating cortical specialization it may not be accurate enough. 1c)i. In the sympathetic nervous system it dilates pupils, inhibits saliva production, dilates bronchi, speeds up heart rate, inhibits digestion, stimulates glucose production and inhibits urination. In the parasympathetic nervous system it constricts pupils, stimulates saliva production, constricts bronchi, slows down heart rate, stimulates digestion, stimulates bile production and stimulates urination. 1c)ii. During a stressful situation for example for Sophie she is taking her driving test the pituitary gland releases adrenocorticotropic hormone which is the bodys major stress hormone. This is then carried around the bloodstream and in turn stimulates the adrenal glands, in the bloodstream. In conjunction with the sympathetic nervous system the adrelinin aids in the fight or flight response by constricting blood vessels in the stomach, which inhibits digestion and this is what gave Sophie the sick feeling. Sophies hands beginning to sweat is an action due to the sympathetic nervous system. The feeling of sick; is due to the parasympathetic nervous system. 1d) The humanistic approach believes that humans should be viewed as a whole and not reduced to component parts. The basic assumptions of the humanistic approach are that humans are active agents- they are able to control and determine their own development. Humans strive towards achieving self-actualisation. To be psychologically healthy, the real self and ideal self must be congruent according to Maslows hierarchy of needs. Carl Rogers thought that there were three selves; the self-concept- the way in which a person sees him/herself, the ideal self- the person whom we would like to be, the real self- the person we actually are. Rogers believed that an effective therapist should provide the client with three essential elements in order to achieve personal growth and positive self-worth: empathy with the clients

emotions, genuineness and unconditional positive regard. Rogers believed in conditions of worth that for example worthlessness, low se