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This training module covers active filters. It introduces the three main filter optimizations, which include: Butterworth, Chebyshev and Bessel. The general transfer function is presented without the tedious mathematical derivations. This training module gives a step-by-step method of how to select the best operational amplifier(op-amp) for the active filter circuit and how to calculate the individual circuit components.
4. High Pass Filters 1. 4.1 High-Pass Filter Design 2. 4.2 Second Order High Pass Filter
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What is a Filter
Webster dictionary defines a filter as a device that passes electronic signals at certain frequencies or frequency ranges while preventing the passage of others.
Filter circuits are used in a wide variety of applications. The following are a few examples: Modems and speech processing use band pass filters in the audio frequency range (0 kHZ to 20 kHz). Audio circuits use filters for bass and treble control. Telephone central offices use high frequency bandpass filters (several hundred MHz) for channel selection. System power supplies use band rejection filters to suppress the 60 Hz line frequency. Anti-aliasing low-pass filters, as well as low-pass noise filters, are used in the signal conditioning stage. Data acquisition systems.
Types of Filters
There are five basic filter types. Four of them can be included in one category and the fifth is its own type. They are as follows: Frequency selective circuits. Low-pass filters ideally pass all frequencies within the bandpass and reject frequencies outside the band. High-pass filters ideally have a pass band between a low and high cut off frequency and reject frequencies outside the band. Band-pass filters ideally allow a narrow band of frequencies to pass and reject all others. Notch filters ideally reject only a specific, and often very narrow, band of frequencies and pass all others. Time-delay filters or all-pass filters pass all frequencies equally in amplitude but change the phase of the input signals depending upon their frequency.
You can find band-pass filters in familiar places, such as in the tuning circuitry of a radio, which allows the user to select a particular station and block out all others.
The advantages of active filters over passive filters are: No insertion loss. The op-amp can provide gain if needed. Active filtering practically eliminates insertion loss due to the high input impedance and low output impedance of an op-amp. Furthermore, with active filtering, it is possible to attenuate unwanted frequencies while amplifying desired frequencies. Cost. Active filter components are more economical than inductors. Inductors are typically bulky, costly and depart further from ideal models compared to capacitors. Inductors do not lend themselves to IC-type mass production. Tuning. Active filters are easily tuned and adjusted over a wide range without altering the desired response. Isolation. Active filters have good isolation due to their high input impedance and low output impedance. This assures minimal interaction between the filter and its load.
At High frequencies of greater than 10MHz, the filters usually consist of passive components such as inductors (L), resistors (R), and capacitors (C). They are called LRC filters.
In comparison to ideal low-pass filtering, actual filter response lacks the following characteristics: The passband gain varies long before fc. The transition from the passband into the stopband is not sharp. The phase response is not linear, thus the amount of signal distortion is increased.
One application for the low-pass filter is in a light sensing instrument using a photodiode. When the light levels are low, the output of the photodiode can be very small, causing it to be partially obscured by the noise of the sensor and its amplifier, whose spectrum can extend to very high frequencies. If a low-pass filter, with a high cutoff frequency, is placed at the output of the amplifier, it will allow the desired signal frequencies to pass and this will reduce the overall noise level.
predetermined value A .
2
The Butterworth filter has poor phase response characteristics. Increasing the order of the filter flattens the passband response and steepens the stopband falloff.
The Butterworth filter has poor phase response characteristics. Increasing the order of the filter flattens the passband response and steepens the stopband falloff.
Chebyshev filters are often used in filter banks, where the frequency content of a signal is of more importance than the constant amplification.
2 A customer's application requires a low-pass filter of 10 MHz, which filter optimization would you recommend?
1. Butterworth 2. Chebyshev 3. Bessel 4. LRC filter 2 Answer: LRC filter
where H is the DC gain, = 2f, and a is the filter coefficient. The value of a1 can be found in the coefficient tables.
0 1
Placing a capacitor in parallel with the feedback resistors of an inverting configuration converts the circuit into a low-pass filter with gain.
Similarly, for a non-inverting configuration, adding a capacitor at the input of the op-amp converts the circuit into a non-inverting low pass filter.
What if you put many filters in series? If the design requirement is a low-pass butterworth filter with flat passband and sharp transition to the stop band, then the ultimate rate of falloff will always be 20ndB/decade, where n is the number of poles. You need one capacitor for each pole, so the required ultimate rate of falloff of filter response determines, roughly, the complexity of the filter. If you decide to use a 6 pole low-pass filter, you are guaranteed an ultimate rolloff of 120db/decade at At low frequencies a capacitor tends to behave as an open circuit compared with the surrounding high frequency. elements and at high frequencies it tends to behave as a short circuit.
of
nominal value over a wide temperature and voltage range. The various temperature characteristics of ceramic capacitors are identified by a threesymbol code such as: COG, X7R, Z5U, and Y5V. COG-type ceramic capacitors are the most precise. Their nominal values range from 0.5 pF to approximately 47 nF with initial tolerence from 0.25% for smaller values and up to 1% for higher values. Their capacitance drift over temperature is typically 30ppm/C. X7R-type ceramic capacitors range from 100 pF to 2.2 F with an initial tolerance fo +1% and a capacitance drift over temperature of 15%. For higher values, tantalum electrolytic capacitors should be used.
COG-type ceramic capacitors are the most precise. Their nominal values range from 0.5 pF to approximately 47 nF with initial tolerence from 0.25% for smaller values and up to 1% for higher values. Their capacitance drift over temperature is typically 30ppm/C. X7R-type ceramic capacitors range from 100 pF to 2.2 F with an initial tolerance fo +1% and a capacitance drift over temperature of 15%. For higher values, tantalum electrolytic capacitors should be used. Other precision capacitors are silver mica, metallized polycarbonate, and for high temperatures, polypropylene or polystyrene. Mylar capacitors are commonly used, but polypropylene (or polystyrene) or even teflon capacitors are often used in high performance filters. Capacitor values for active filter designs should be selected first and standard values should be used. A wider range of standard resistor values is generally available, and this higher resolution of values can then be used to obtain the desired filter response. Now that you know what passive components to choose, here is how to select the values for the components. From the first order non-inverting low-pass filter transfer function you can solve for R and R .
1 2
From the first order inverting low-pass filter transfer function you can solve for R and R .
1 2
The value for a is taken from one of the coefficient tables below.
1
Note that all filter types are identical in their first order and a = 1
1
The following tables contain the coefficients for the three filter types: Bessel, Butterworth and Chebyshev.The table headers consist of the following quantities: n is the filter order. i is the number of the partial filter. ai and bi are the filter coefficients. ki is the ratio of the corner frequency of a partial filter, fci, to the corner frequency of the overall filter, fc. Qi is the quality factor of the partial filter.
Since capacitor values are not as finely subdivided as resistor values, the capacitor values should be defined prior to selecting resistors.
Filter Coefficient Table - Butterworth Filter Coefficient Table - Bessel Filter Coefficient Table - Chebyshev for 0.5 db passband ripple Filter Coefficient Table - Chebyshev for 1 db passband ripple Filter Coefficient Table - Chebyshev for 2 db passband ripple
For a first order inverting configuration, find the value of the external components to achieve a -3dB frequency of 1kHz with a dc gain of 20 dB? DC gain of 20 dB = 10V/V = R /R
2 1
R = 158 k R = 15.8 k
R = 158 k R = 15.8 k
You are asked to change the cutoff frequency of a low pass filter from 1kHz to 1.6Khz. The original design has a capacitor value of 0.01 uF and a resistor value of 115.9K ohms. The new resistor value is 115.9 k * ( 1/1.6) = 72.4 k
A Quick Filter Quiz 1 Design a low-pass filter at a cutoff frequency of 1 kHz with a passband gain of 2, assume C = 0.01F.
1. R = 1/(103)(10-8) = 100 k. Since the passband gain is 2, the gain resistors must be equal. Therefore, let R = R = 10k. 1 2 3 2. R = 1/(103)(10-8) = 100 k. Since the passband gain is 2, the gain resistors can't be equal. Therefore, let R = 10 k, and R = 5 k 1 2 3 3. R = 1/(2)(103)(10-8) = 15.9 k. Since the passband gain is 2, the gain resistors must be equal. Therefore, let R = R = 10k. 1 2 3 4. R = 1/(2)(103)(10-8) = 15.9 k. Since the passband gain is 2, the gain resistors can't be equal. Therefore, let R = 10 k, and R = 1 2 3
5 k
1 Answer: 3. R = 1/(2)(10 )(10 ) = 15.9 k. Since the passband gain is 2, the gain resistors must be equal. Therefore, let R = R = 10k.
1 2 3
-8
2 Using the frequency scaling technique, convert the 1 kHz frequency of the low pass filter .
1. To change the cutoff frequency from 1 kHz to 1.6 kHz, multiply the 15.9 k by (original cutoff frequency/new cutoff frequency) = 0.625,
new resistor value = 9.94 . resistor value = 25.44.
2. To change the cutoff frequency from 1 kHz to 1.6 kHz, mulitply the 15.9 k by (new cutoff frequency/original frequency) =1.6, new 2 Answer: 1. To change the cutoff frequency from 1 kHz to 1.6 kHz, multiply the 15.9 k by (original cutoff frequency/new cutoff frequency) = 0.625, new resistor value = 9.94 .
In order to obtain real values under the square root, C must satisfy the following condition
2
In actual applications, Q may range from as low as 0.5 to as high as 100, with values near unity being by far the most common.
1.9305. Specifying C as 22 nF .
1
First obtain the coefficients for a fifth order Butterworth filter from the tables. First filter is
The closest 1% value is 3.16 k Second Filter The calculation of the third filter is identical to the calculation of the second filter, except that a and b are replaced by a and b , resulting
2 2 3 3
in different capacitor and resistor values. specify C as 330pF and obtain C with
1 2
C2 = 3.46 nF, the closest 10% capacitor value is 4.7 nF. With these capacitor values, the values for R1 and R2 are R = 1.45 k with the
1
closest 1% value being 1.47 k R = 4.51 k with the closest 1% value being 4.53 k
2
Here is the final fifth order unity gain Butterworth Low Pass Filter
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WEBENCH
Design the fifth order filter using WEBENCH Specify the design using filter approximation. Compare WEBENCH results to the calculations above.
Component Selection
To minimize variations of fc and Q, NPO ceramic capacitors are recommended for high performance filters. These capacitors hold their nominal value over a wide temperature and voltage range. For high performance filters, 0.1% resistors are recommended.Resistor values should stay within the range of 1k to 100k. The lower limit avoids excessive current draw from the op amp output, which is important in power sensitive applications. The upper limit of 100K is to avoid excessive resistor noise. Op Amp Selection The most important op amp parameter for proper filter functionality is the unity gain bandwidth. In general, the open loop gain should be 100 times ( 40 dB above) the peak gain of a filter section to allow a maximum gain error of 1%. Use an op amp with adequate bandwidth, where the filter 3db > 10 times the highest frequency in passband of the filter. Other op amp performance required low noise and low signal distortion. The slew rate is SR = * Vpp * fc. Example for a 100kHz filter with 5Vpp the output requires an SR = 1.57V/s
The response of the filter in the lab will deviate from the reponse predicated by theory. This is due to the component tolerance and the op-amp nonidealities. Even if some of the components are made adjustable to allow for fine tuning, deviations will still arise because of the component aging and thermal drift.
Reference Material
OA-27 Low-sensitivity, Lowpass Filter Design AN-779 A Basic Introduction to Filters - Active, Passive, and Switched-Capacitor Intuitive IC Op Amps from Basics to Useful Applications by Thomas M Frederiksen
The coefficient a is the same for both inverting and non-inverting circuits
1
To calculate the resistor value of R , specify the corner frequency (fc), the dc gain (Adc)and capacitor (C )
1 1
The resistor value R , differs for the inverting and non-inverting circuits. For the non-inverting circuit
2
For low Q filters with high gain accuracy, the unity gain Sallen-Key topology is applied.
The MFB topology is commonly used in filters that have high Qs and require high gain.
Similar to low-pass filters, higher-order high-pass filters are designed by cascading first-order and second-order filter stages. The filter coefficients are the same ones used for the low-pass filter design and are listed in the coefficient tables found in the Low-Pass filter section.
The passband gain of a MFB high-pass filter can vary significantly due to the wide tolerances of the two capacitors C and C . To keep the gain variation at a minimum, it is necessary to use capacitors with tight
2
tolerance values.
Design a third order unity gain Bessel high-pass filter with the corner frequency f =1kHz.
c
The coefficients for the third order Bessel filter from the tables are Filter 1 a =0.756, b =0
1 2 1
Maximum Gain
The Maximum gain of a fitler is given by H . It is the ratio of V to V .
O O i
Group delay
Group delay is a measure of how long it takes a signal to traverse a network, or its transmit time. It is a strong function of the length of the netwrk, and usually a weak function of frequency. It is expressed in units of time, pico-seconds for short distances or nanoseconds for longer distances.
Quality Factor
The quality factor, Q, is a dimensionless number used to measure the selectivity of a filter and is expressed as the ratio of the filter's center frequency to the bandwidth. For example, given a filter with a fixed center frequency, decreasing the filter's bandwidth (i.e. increasing its sharpness) increases Q.
frequency to the bandwidth. For example, given a filter with a fixed center frequency, decreasing the filter's bandwidth (i.e. increasing its sharpness) increases Q.
Fundamentals of Active Filters Copyright 2010 by National Semiconductor All rights reserved