U6240 Environmental Science for Sustainable Development

Bangladesh: Why Gender-Based Approach to Flood/Disaster Mitigation?

Submitted by: Annalyn Bautista-Alenton

Submitted to: Prof. John Colin Mutter SIPA-Columbia University in the City of New York

I. The Region: Its Geographical Make-up: Bangladesh, with an area 144,000 km2, is a low-lying deltaic country in South Asia which has a monsoonal climate with seasonal rainfall, warm temperatures and high humidity. Approximately 90% of the land is lower than 10m above sea level, making it highly affected by cyclones, floods, tsunamis, tornadoes and mudslides. More than 230 waterways and tributaries of the mighty rivers namely the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna, have made this country a land of rivers aside from its having the worlds longest unbroken sandy beach of 120km, sloping gently down to the blue waters of the Bay of Bengal. 1

Bangladeshs land area can be divided broadly into three categories i.e. floodplain (80 %), Pleistocene terrace (8 %), and tertiary hills (12 %) based on its geological formation. The floodplain comprises of a succession of ridges and depressions (back swamps or old channels), while its land type has been classified according to depth of inundation with seasonality. All land types except highlands are exposed to monsoon flooding for part or whole of the year. Floodplains located in the north-western, central, south-central and north-eastern regions are subject to regular flooding at different frequency and intensity while the coastal plain is subject to cyclones and
1

Country Profile. Official Name People's Republic of Bangladesh. <http://www.un.int/bangladesh/gen/country.htm - 37k -

storm surges, salinity intrusion and coastal inundation. Pleistocene terrace land is characterized by moisture stress while flash flood is common in the hilly areas and the piedmont plains in the northeast and northwestern parts of the country. 2

II. Relevant Physical Systems Affecting Bangladesh

The Hydrological Regions of Bangladesh posed as the countrys major physical vulnerability. Eighty percent (80%) of Bangladesh area is a floodplain. A floodplain is an area next to a river, stream, or creek that may be covered with water following heavy rainstorms. This plain holds the excess water allowing it to be slowly released into the river system and seep into groundwater aquifers. Floodplains also give time for sediment to settle out of floodwaters, thereby keeping it out of water bodies.3 In a study by Hossain,4 Bangladesh's water cycle and hydrology is found to be complex and highly diverse in time and space. Accordingly , water balance, hydrology, land use etc. are distinct in the hydrological regions which are also divided into six with different river systems and characteristics of catchment areas. Due to such variations within a region, it is important to understand the differences of Bangladesh hydrological regions when planning for flood management and control.

In a similar study Bangladesh: State of the Environment 2001, it describes the country as a land of many rivers, and heavy monsoon rains. As the largest delta in the world, the study, which

2 3

Hossain, A.N.H. Akhtar. Bangladesh: Flood Management. WMO/GWP Associated Programme on Flood Management

Wester P. and J. Bron, Coping with Water, Water Management in Flood Control and Drainage Systems in Bangladesh < www2.alterra.wur.nl/Internet/webdocs/ilri-publicaties/special_reports/Srep7/Srep7-h1.pdf -> 4 Hossain, A.N.H. Akhtar. Bangladesh: Flood Management. WMO/GWP Associated Programme on Flood Management

quoted Ahmad and Rashid, stated that over 92 per cent of the annual runoff generated in the GBM area flows through Bangladesh, which is only about 7 per cent of the total catchments area.

The study further discussed that a vast amount of water flows through Bangladesh. It is estimated that every year an average of 870 million acre-feet (MAF) of water flows into the country from India. 5 During the peak flow season (July - September), most of the rivers normally overflow their banks onto the low-lying surrounding flat land, which is essential for providing vital moisture and fertility to the soil. However, occasionally abnormal conditions lead to drainage congestion, excessive rainfall run-off, and storm-tidal surges that induce high-magnitude flooding that inundates large areas, and causes widespread damage to crops and property. The devastating floods of the recent past are due to excessive rainfall in the GBM catchment area, and synchronization of peak flow of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra-Jamuna rivers. The likelihood of abnormal floods is also increased due to infrastructure development activities that neglect proper concern about environmental impacts and drainage facilities.

Along with the floodwater, the rivers of Bangladesh carry huge amounts of sediments, an estimated 2.4 billion m.tons/year.6 The sediments are washed down from highlands on three sides of the Basin, particularly from the Himalayas, where the slopes are steeper and the rocks are less consolidated. Erosion plays an important role in the siltation process, and the water-holding capacity of rivers. The deterioration of the river system due to siltation is one of the causes of floods in Bangladesh.7 According to Ali8 erosion in the coastal regions of Bangladesh is caused by
5 6

Rashid, 1991. Country Profile of Bangladesh. <moef.gov.bd/html/state_of_env/pdf/overview.pdf> Ibid

7
8

Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, Ministry of Environment and Forests, http://www.moef.gov.bd/html/laws/laws.html Ali, Mir. M., M.M. Hogue, Resaur Rahman, and Salim Rashid, 1998. Bangladesh floods: Views from home and abroad, 1998. Dhaka: University Press.

a number of factors, such as high monsoon wind, waves, and currents, strong tidal actions, and storm surges.

III. Pathways in Which The Physical Systems Affect Human Welfare: Floods

Since Bangladesh is a land of many rivers, and heavy monsoon rains, therefore, the country is subject to inundation by overflow from the riverbanks due to drainage congestion, rainfall run-off, and storm-tidal surges. Quoting Hossain et. al., 1987 and Milliman et. al., 1989, an article 9 stated that some 30 to 35 per cent of the total land surface is flooded every year during the wet monsoon. Extensive studies by various authors (Bashar, 1988, Choudhury, 1988, Matin and Hussain, 1988, Pramanik, 1988, and Rashid and Pramanik, 1990) quoted by the same article have also shown that the area of flooding at different times, varied from 31 per cent to 85 per cent of the total area of the country. Such that during the peak flow season (July, August and September), most of the rivers overflow their banks, and deposit silt on the flood plains -providing vital moisture and fertility to the soil. Thus, the normal floods are considered a blessing for Bangladesh. Only abnormal floods are considered disastrous, i.e., the high-magnitude events that inundate large areas, and cause widespread damage to crops and properties. In the years 1988 and 1998, two devastating floods inundated more than 65 per cent of the geographical area of the country. In the year 2000, Bangladesh faced an unusual flood over its usually flood-free southwestern plain, which also caused loss of life and massive damage to property.
Source: WARPO

Why Flooding occurs frequently in Bangladesh?

http://www.rrcap.unep.org/reports/soe/bangladesh_disasters.pdf

5
http://www.adpc.net/AUDMP/library/safer_cities/7.pdf

Due to its geographic make-up and unique location, Bangladesh experiences flooding every year on up to two-thirds of its territory. During the monsoon months (Jun-Sep), when 80% of annual rainfall occurs, the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna Rivers bring about 1x1012 m3 of water plus 500 Mt to 1500 Mt of sediment into Bangladesh from the upstream catchment area (area 1.74 million km2). Rainfall within Bangladesh accounts for a further 0.12x1012 m3.
10

The combined

discharge of the three main rivers is among the highest in the world. Annually, 1,105,612 km of water cross the borders of Bangladesh on average, 85 percent of it between June and October. Around 54 percent (598,908 km) is contributed by the Brahmaputra, 31 percent (343,932 km) by the Ganges, and nearly 15 percent (162,772 km) by the tributaries of the Meghna and other minor rivers.
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To study the causes of floods in Bangladesh, it is important to understand the hydrological features that stem from the geographical make-up of the country. Why flooding occurs frequently? It is a fact that most of Bangladesh lies within the flood plains of three great rivers-- the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna rivers and their tributaries and distributaries. The three rivers drain a catchment area of about 1.75 million square kilometers, 8% of which lie within Bangladesh.12 The flows of these systems discharge into the Bay of Bengal through Bangladesh. Bangladesh therefore has little control over the flood discharges that flow in the country. The rivers also carry huge sediment load that clogs the river and drainage channels and impedes the movement of flood flow for the Ganges.

10

Weibe, Herb, Assessment of Flood Control and Management Options, Contributing Paper, Flood Action Plan in Bangladesh, Prepared for Thematic Review IV.4: <http://www.dams.org> 11 Royal Haskoning, Controlling or Living with Floods in Bangladesh, Toward an Interdisciplinary and Integrated Approach to Agricultural Drainage. Agriculture & Rural Development Working Paper 10.The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Agriculture & Rural Development Department, Washington, DC. January 2003. 12 Ibid.

We can say that floods in Bangladesh result from a complex series of factors-from the huge inflow of water from upstream catchment areas13 hand-in-hand with heavy monsoon rainfall to congested drainage channels and from the major rivers converging inside Bangladesh to tides and storm surges in coastal areas. These factors give rise to different types of flooding, both natural such as flash floods, river floods, rainwater floods, storm surge, etc. and man-made which are all common in Bangladesh.

Impacts of Floods in Bangladesh: The floods in Bangladesh, according to the National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) Final Report14, as well as the Tearfund Report 200115, affect about 80% of land. In a normal year, 2025% of the country is inundated by river spills and drainage congestions. Accordingly, floods among other catastrophes are major killers as well as cause of most direct and indirect damage in the country. In more recent years over 1970-98, cyclonic storms and floods killed more than 4.6 hundred thousand and 41 thousand peoples respectively. It affected another nearly 45 million and 356 million peoples respectively. When a major disaster has struck, the whole economy suffered as were highlighted during the devastating floods of 1987, 1988, and 1998 which inundated more than 60% of the country. Specifically, the 1998 flood alone caused 1,100 deaths, inundated nearly 100,000 sq-km, rendered 30 million people homeless, damaged 500,000 homes and caused heavy losses to infrastructure. In 2004, floods inundated 38% of the country. Figure 1 indicates broad Source: UNEP adverse impacts of major floods during the last 50 years.

Figure 1. Flood Prone Area by 1998 Flood DepthEvent Impact

13

Hossain, Engr. Md. Amirul and Engr. Md. Misanur Rahman. Water Resources Management in Bangladesh: Limitations and Uncertainties. April 2005. <http://nation.ittefaq.com/artmen/exec/view.cgi/29/17982> 14 UNDP and Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA). Final Report, November 2005, http://www.unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/ban01.pdf 15 http://www.tearfund.org/webdocs/Website/Campaigning/beforedisasterstrikes.pdf

Event 1954 floods 1974 floods 1984 flood 1987 floods 1988 floods 1998 floods 2004 floods

Impact Affected 55% of country Moderately severe, over 2,000 deaths, affected 58% of country, followed by famine with over 30,000 deaths Inundated 52,520 sq-km, cost estimated at US$378 million Inundated over 50,000 sq-km, estimated damage US$ 1.0 billion, 2055 deaths Inundated 61% of country, estimated damage US$ 1.2 billion, more than 45 million homeless, between 2,000-6,500 deaths 1,100 deaths, inundated nearly 100,000 sq-km, rendered 30 million people homeless, damaged 500,000 homes, heavy loss to infrastructure, estimated damage US$ 2.8 billion Inundation 38%, damage US$ 6.6 billion, deaths 700, affected people nearly 3.8 million

Generally, flood impacts are accounted for in terms of economic losses and its impacts to society. Various sectors are greatly affected in Bangladesh during its decades of recurring floods. Nabiul Islam discussed in his research paper16 an analysis of damage to wet seasonss rice crops which shows that historically, Bangladesh is damage-prone by 3.7 per cent of production annually. Of this, Aus17 is subject to annual damage by 4.4 per cent and Aman18 by 3.4 per cent which contributed to the total losses of the whole economy, including infrastructure and commercial sectors. In flood 2004 alone, non-crop sector damage constitute as high as 74%. Likewise, the looses in major economy of the country also result to abrupt fall in employment, price hikes and vanishing of small enterprises, of which the cumulative effects boil down to the most vulnerable, mostly women and children.

Floods also bring about massive health impacts. Almost always, the poor victims of Bangladesh floods are confronted with shortage of food supply as well as water shortage and contamination.

16

Islam, K.M. Nabiul, Flood Impacts and Related Issues. Flood Loss Management: Mitigation and Adaptation Options for Bangladesh. 2006 17 Aus. Late dry season/early monsoon paddy (rice) crop
18

Aman. Monsoon season paddy (rice) crop

This would result in malnutrition and the outbreak of water-borne diseases. An empirical evidence shows that flooding clearly have a positive influence on the incidence of diarrhoeal diseases.19

IV. Social Mechanisms Employed to Modulate the Influence of Floods The main methods used today for 'controlling' floods are, first and foremost, the construction of structural controls20 like embankments, dams, reservoirs and other similar devices to contain or impound flood waters within rivers to prevent any destructive flooding downstream. Coping with extreme climatic events like floods, drought, cyclone and storm surges is not new to the people of Bangladesh. Over a period of time, both government and non-government organizations have initiated a number of activities to minimize the adverse effects of extreme natural events. Most prominent of the countrys initiatives was the implementation of various flood adaptation and mitigation programs. Bangladesh program Flood Management
21

has been

adopted and has evolved in the country for over 50 years. Initially, the emphasis was on structural measures through the implementation of nearly two thousand cyclone shelters in the coastal area, and about 200 flood shelters for evacuation of people threatened by cyclone or flood which were appreciated and recognized worldwide. The Bangladesh Country Report 2004 National Report and Information on Disaster Reduction For the World Conference on Disaster

Reduction outlined several technical measures or programs for reduction of disasters. Among
19 20 21

Ibid. Functions and Technological Elements of Flood Control and Drainage Systems 31 Wester, P. and J. Bron. Coping With Water: Water Management in Flood Control and Drainage Systems in Bangladesh.

the most prominent are the Flood Protection Embankment Project of Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) which focused on the construction of flood control, drainage and irrigation structures (FCDI)22 and construction of flood shelters as flood mitigation measures. Such projects are believed to be based on the projected social impacts of the floods and other disasters rather than on their scientific grounding. In addition, under the programme of flood control and drainage improvement, about 7,555 km of embankment (including coastal embankments of about 4,000 km), 7,907 hydraulic structures including sluices, and around one thousand river regulators, 1,082 river closures and 3,204 km of drainage channels have been built spending a thousand crore taka. Under the scheme, a total of 332 projects, aimed at freeing 3.5 million ha of land from flood water, have been implemented.
23

Thus, about 24% of the total land area and 39% of the net cultivated area have been protected. Other than the flood control embankments on the floodplains, the railway and national road embankments constructed during the colonial period played a major role in flood mitigation.24 The main objectives of such structural measures are to protect the agricultural sector, the infrastructure located in the floodplains, as well as the communities located at the floodplains. These embankments provide a protected environment for agricultural and other economic activities.
25

A brief account of major embankments in Bangladesh is given here as presented by

Islam and Baril in their study of flood control.

22

Ibid Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh , Bangladesh Country Report, June 2004. National Report and Information on Disaster Reduction For the World Conference on Disaster Reduction, Kobe-Hyogo, Japan January 18-22, 2005, Ministry of Food and Disaster Management In Concert with Disaster Risk Reduction Stakeholders 24 NAPA Final Report 2005 25 Islam, M. Aminul and M. Fazlul Baril < http://www.banglapedia.org/HT/E 0049.HTM>
23

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According to a joint research project of UNCRD-BUET26, these embankments are intended to protect land from tidal inundation but cannot prevent overtopping and damage from cyclonic surges and tidal bore. In addition to increased agricultural production, these embankments have provided good road communication and contributed towards improvement of the overall socioeconomic condition in the coastal zone. VI. How Embankments and Other Structural Measures Agree with Science Based on technological approaches, embankments are seen to be effective in the short-term only, which is to protect polders or areas from river floods or tidal action. As flood control structures, however, they are designed to primarily prevent any types of floods as it can be technically feasible. Relative to their stated objective, the projects are seen as socially feasible but maybe found in disagreements with nature and the geophysical systems of Bangladesh as most of these flood control measures are just but results of government excitements over big-budgeted and donor-financed infrastructure projects.

This is evidently proven by the drawbacks of such structures as presented by a study of the World Bank27 in Bangladesh. The drawbacks include 1) drainage congestion and waterlogging, with embankments keeping floodwaters out and rainwater in - as a consequence, area inhabitants of the area cut the embankments; 2) Interruption of fish migration routes. Bangladeshs inland fisheries are intimately bound to the sequence of annual flooding. Embankments have typically cut across
26

Improved System for Disaster Mitigation and Environmental Management in Bangladesh, Volume 1.Flood Disaster Management and Environmental Impact Studies for Urban and Rural Areas. Proceedings of the UNCRD-BUET Joint Research Project 24-26 February 1997 Dhaka, Bangladesh United Nations Centre for Regional Development Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology http://www.hyogo.uncrd.or.jp/publication/pdf/Proceedings/1997JRPProceedings.pdf 27 Royal Haskoning. Controlling or Living with Floods in Bangladesh, Toward an Interdisciplinary and Integrated Approach to Agricultural Drainage.(Agriculture & Rural Development Working Paper 10. Washington, DC. December 2003. <http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/ardext.nsf/11ByDocName/ControllingorLivingwithFloodsinBangladesh/ $FILE/BANGLADESH_final_format.pdf>

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these migration routes, which, together with the gradual decline of the dry-season water bodies, has had a negative effect on capture fisheries. This is the very reason why World Bank again funded the Coastal Embankment Rehabilitation Program in the country. According to several studies by Islam & Baril and Goldsmith and Hildyard28, the embankments often altered the natural flow pattern, which induced siltation in tidal channels and at the outlet of sluice gates. Such an effect has been most severe in the Khulna region where discharge from an upland area is less. This leads to prolonged waterlogging in several polder areas. A number of studies were conducted to investigate the causes of siltation and drainage congestion. On the basis of these studies rehabilitation work in the CEP is being done since 1988 to alleviate drainage congestion and waterlogging.29 A study by Edward Goldsmith and Nicholas Hildyard who quoted Dr. Maurice Arnold of Philadelphia's Bureau of Outdoor Recreation Dr. Stanley Changnon, Chief of the Illinois State Water Survey emphasized that the devastation caused by floods has increased in spite of the vast amount of money which has been spent on flood controls. They cited an example in the US when hurricane Agnes hit the middle and North Atlantic drainage basins of the Upper Ohio River.

Both Arnold and Changnon as well as other scholars like Professor Arthur E. Morgan, Professor Charles Belt of St. Louis University, and Alan Grainger of Oxford University's Oxford Forestry Institute argued that the historical experience with such controls has repeatedly shown just how ineffective they are. The inhabitants of China's Yellow River Basin, for instance, have built

28

Goldsmith, Edward, and Nicholas Hildyard. The Social and Environmental Effects of Large Dams: Volume 1. Overview. Wadebridge Ecological Centre, Worthyvale Manor Camelford, Cornwall PL32 9TT, UK, 1984. 29 Islam, M. Aminul and M. Fazlul Baril <http://www.banglapedia.org/HT/E 0049.HTM

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barriers to control the course of the Yellow River and its tributaries since time immemorial but the project proved futile. Despite the record, the Chinese Government - like other governments throughout the world continues to rely on embankments to control floods. Yet the floods continue to occur. Indeed, there is now a growing body of evidence which makes it increasingly clear that structural controls do little or nothing to reduce the ravages of floods. On the contrary, they would appear to exacerbate the problem - not least by increasing the severity of those floods which occur. The same scenario was happening in India where a National Flood Control program was launched in 1953 where billions of rupees were spent on embankments, yet flood damage is increasing year by year. 30 According to the scholars and analysts mentioned above, if one contains a river within concrete embankments, one does not reduce the total volume of flood waters. One does, however, dramatically increase the river's rate of flow - not least because the building of embankments tends to eliminate the oxbow bends which previously slowed down the river's waters on their way to the sea. When a flood occurs therefore, the floodwaters are literally propelled downstream and, inevitably, the damage done in the flood plains below is correspondingly increased. It is for that reason that Arnold argues that channels or canals - also used as structural flood controls - should not be regarded as flood control mechanisms but rather as 'flood threat transfer devices. The same can indeed be said for embankments.31

30 31

Ibid. Goldsmith, Edward, and Nicholas Hildyard. The Social and Environmental Effects of Large Dams: Volume 1. Overview. Wadebridge Ecological Centre, Worthyvale Manor Camelford, Cornwall PL32 9TT, UK, 1984.

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This is also being supported by a recent study of UNESCO which found that when forested, the watershed of one selected river only released between 1 and 3 percent of the total rainfall: by contrast, once the area was deforested, between 97 and 99 percent was released to the river. During periods of heavy rainfall, therefore, the volume of water carried by rivers in deforested areas can be massive. Inevitably, the pressure put on existing embankments is tremendous - thus increasing both the need for repairs and maintenance after each rainy season and the possibility that the embankments might simply collapse. Silting and sedimentation also contribute to the likelihood of heavy flooding.32 During periods of heavy rainfall, the soil is carried down the denuded mountain slopes into the rivers below, correspondingly increasing their silt load. In normal circumstances, that silt would be deposited on the flood plains downstream when the rivers flooded their banks during the rainy season. Where a river is channelled between embankments, however, such flooding is no longer possible, thus, the silt simply accumulates, raising the height of the river bed until - eventually - it becomes higher than the surrounding land. Inevitably, such silting up further increases the pressure on embankments, whose height must continually be raised in order to prevent flooding. Raising the height of embankments, however, does not solve the problem indefinitely, in fact, in the long run, it is a measure which can only increase the severity of future floods. VII. Ethical Assumptions to Build a Policy Framework for Efficient Modulation of Floods I in Bangladesh Holistic Approach to Flood Adaptation and Mitigation?

32

Priyangika, Nishanthi. Hundreds of thousands hit by Bangladesh floods. News and Analysis. International Committee of the Fourth International (ICFI),20 October 1999 http://www.wsws.org/articles/1999/oct1999/bang-o20.shtml>

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For several years, water and flood management policies have been dominated by structural measures such the massive flood control, drainage and irrigation projects in Bangladesh. This structures instead contributed to their failures as they gave false sense of security 33 making the people a little lax in terms of flood preparation, inadequate flood maintenance. Because of this, many scholars and policymakers started to shift their policy focus not just on establishing structural control measures but also towards non-structural measures. The ongoing 2007 flood has once again reminded Bangladesh about the importance of non-structural measures, especially in the case of emergency management.

The approach to flood loss reduction thus needs to be based on multi-disciplinary perspectives (e.g. engineering, behavioral and socio-economic), rather than only engineering ones. Reducing vulnerability, or resilience-building, through warnings, emergency preparedness and responses can be regarded as a major non-structural approach of flood loss mitigation. As argued by Islam34 the flood shelters as well as the existing flood control structures can only serve a small portion of the vulnerable population. However, if the government and other support institutions should consider putting up such structures, they should see to its that they are multipurpose, hence, it should be well-specified in terms of strict implementation, regarding site selection. Recognizing a more holistic approach to flood adaptation and mitigation, the government of Bangladesh, in coming up with their National Policy on Disaster Management, priority has been

33

Khalequzzaman, Md. Flood Control in Bangladesh Through Best Management Practices. Global Amitech, News From Bangladesh. Georgia, USA. December, 2007.<http://www.eb2000.org/short_note_17.htm> 34 Islam, K.M. Nabiul. Flood Loss Management: Mitigation and Adaptation Options for Bangladesh. p. 5.

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accorded to focus on community participation in terms of flood/disaster preparedness, response, recovery and rehabilitation.35

The said Policy highlighted three major strategies: 1) disaster management would involve the management of both risks and consequences of disasters that would include prevention, emergency response and post-disaster recovery; 2) community involvement for preparedness programmes for protecting lives and properties would be a major focus. Involvement of local government bodies would be an essential part of the strategy. Self-reliance should be the key for preparedness, response and recovery; and 3) non-structural mitigation measures such as community disaster preparedness, training, advocacy and public awareness must be given a high priority; this would require an integration of structural mitigation with non-structural measures.36 Why put gender perspectives in flood mitigation strategies? The strategies laid out above already reflected the countrys need for a holistic approach to flood adaptation and mitigation encompassing disaster management, community involvement and incorporation of non-structural measures. However, in the second strategy only emphasized the involvement of government bodies and the practice of self-reliance as key to community participation in all levels of disasters but it does not mention a particular sector like women and children. The emphasis of women participation in all stages of any structural and non-structural measures against floods and other disasters is advisable, considering that the most vulnerable groups impacted by most disasters are women and children. It is but appropriate to involve these

35

36

Ibid Hossain, A.N.H. Akhtar, Bangladesh: Flood Management. WMO/GWP Associated Programme on Flood Management p.2 < www.apfm.info/pdf/case_studies/bangladesh.pdf>

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women in the planning and implementation of any programs and projects designed to mitigate the disasters. Likewise, policy formulation should incorporate gender perspectives.

17

The 53rd Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs in July 2003 emphasized three major aspects why uphold gender perspectives in any undertakings relative to flood/disaster undertakings such as responsibility, vulnerability, and adaptability and mitigation. In terms of responsibility, the conference proceedings highlighted Skutschs argument on mens and womens differential involvement in the global economy as well as giving emphasis to their differential responsibilities for contributing to climate change, it is thus only logical to incorporate a gender perspective when conducting research on human responsibility for climate change.37 In a study quoting Nasreem38, an emphasis was put to womens complex roles, most of which relate to socio-economic activities, in disasters eventhough they have been confronted with problems. During floods women continue to be bearers of children and responsible for their socialization, collectors and providers of food, fuel, water, fodder, building materials and keepers of household belongings: they represent a productive potential which was not recognised earlier. With regard to vulnerability, women as a group are seen as the most vulnerable based on the bare fact that women are poorer and less powerful than men in terms of access and control of resources-products and services. While a statement as broad as this should not be accepted without qualification and acknowledgement of the significant gains women have made to challenge their assumed vulnerability as argued by Nelson et al 2002, it is clear that climate change will have the most dramatic and likely detrimental effects on the most vulnerable segments of society, and this does, for a variety of reasons, often include women.
37

Dennison, Christie E. From Beijing to Kyoto: Gendering the International Climate Change Negotiation Process. 53rd Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs, Advancing, Halifax and Pugwash, Nova Scotia, Canada 17-21 July 2003, < http://www.pugwash.org/reports/pac/53/dennison.htm> 38 www.thereligionofpeace.com/ArticlesArchive.htm

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With regard to adaptability and mitigation, Masika and Skutsch both argued that women have been shown to be both capable of, and especially adept at, adapting to climate change, as well as being willing to play a key role in developing and implementing mitigation strategies, and that if they are granted with the opportunity and agency to participate in the process. The same study by Nasreem in 1995 argues that it is women's strategies, developed over the past years, which are vital for enabling the rural people to cope with disasters. Government and many other bodies dealing with disaster management mainly communicate with wealthier, influential landowners who do not represent or serve the interest of the poor or of women. Nor does it seem to have occurred to policy makers that women might be involved in activities different from men or experience disasters differently than men. 39

Why go for

Gender-based Structural and Non-Structural Approaches to Flood/Disaster

Adaptation/Mitigation Strategies in Bangladesh?

While the preceding paragraphs discuss biological science to clearly explain the advantage of having women involved in various endeavors, the social and political dimension of gender issues and the situation of women in Bangladesh also call for a greater participation, as part of the community involvement invoked by the Government of Bangladesh in the implementation of a more holistic flood/disaster adaptation/mitigation strategies. Briefly, women in Bangladesh need close attention by the government and other institutions grounding on their current societal status in the country. As reported by the Ministry of Women and Children in Bangladesh, women situation in Bangladesh are as follows:

39

Nasreem, Mahbuba. Disaster Research: Exploring the Sociological Approach to Disaster in Bangladesh. Bangladeshi e-Journal of Sociology. Vol. 1.No. 2. July, 2004 <http://www.bangladeshsociology.org/Sociology%20of%20Disaster.htm>

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Women have limited opportunities for education, technical and vocational training and employment.

Nearly 76% of women fall under the category of poor in terms of income and resource endowments. Women routinely face discrimination in terms of food, education, health care, shelter and work.

43% of women are involved in agricultural work and that 70% of women work as unpaid family labor.

In the industrial sector, however, more than two million women work in some 3,500 garment units, constituting over 90% of the total labor force in that sector

Women in Bangladesh, including pregnant women, nursing mothers and children, are especially vulnerable to malnutrition, and the gap between women and men increased in the 1990s

Women are less likely to utilize disaster shelters and are often the last to leave the household compound in disaster situations.

Scientific foundations of considering gender perspectives to flood mitigation strategies: Putting gender perspective in flood mitigation and adaptation strategies is almost always founded on its social feasibility especially in mens and womens differential roles and responsibilities in society. But several scholars and researchers have found a scientific explanation of these differences as they relate to biological features of men against women. An article written by Carolyn Y. Johnson in 2005,40 cited Harvard President Lawrence Summersresearch findings in his studies on the differences of mens and womens test scores which concluded that men's and
40

Johnson, Carolyn Y. The Scientific Reality of Men vs. Women. Biology. Boston Globe, February 2, 2005 <http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20050202/news_1c02gender.html>

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women's brains aren't exactly the same. Accordingly, as with other several brain studies do show that males and females have slight biological differences. Women tend to use both sides of the brain when they think, while men use only one; men have slightly larger brains; women tend to be better at doing computations in their head.41 Another article written by Jay Patterson Female Perception vs. Male Perception42 supported the claim of Summers. According to Patterson, scientists have come to accept that a few fundamental differences between men and women are biological. It turns out that men's and women's brains are not only different, but the way we use them also differs. Women have larger connections and more frequent interaction between their brain's left and right hemispheres. This accounts for women's ability to have better verbal skills and intuition. Because there are more connections, women are able to recover from a stroke much easier than men since their brain has more options for rerouting signals, as has been discussed in a health study by some scientists/medical practitioners. 43 Men, on the other hand, have greater brain hemisphere separation, which explains their skills for abstract reasoning and visual-spatial intelligence. While Mens brains are programmed to hunting, which explains their narrow range of vision, while womens brains are able to decipher a wider range of information. The article continued to discuss a recent discovery where women are found to actually have more rods and cones in their eyes than men. This render women a better peripheral vision that helps them to see whats happening around the house, to spot an approaching danger, to notice changes in the childrens behavior and appearance, to see more detail, etc. which partially explains why
41 42

Ibid http://www.lifescript.com/channels/well/Meditations/female_perception_vs._male_perception.asp?page=1 43 Dr. Marianne J. Legato, founder of the Partnership for Gender-Specific Medicine at Columbia University, as quoted by Pranay Gupte in her article Straight to the Heart of the Gender Divide, Lunch at the Four Seacons, March 23, 2006<http://www.nysun.com/article/29659?page_no=3>

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men sometimes see an ordinary room, while women see complete filth. When entering a room, men look for exits, estimating a possible threat, and ways of escape, while women pay attention to the guests faces to find out who they are and how they feel. Men are able to sort out information and archive it in their head. Women tend to rewind the information over and over again.44

Consequently, utilizing these biological features as an explanation why women are tasked to observe prospects of floods/disasters, a study by Ariyabando said that during the monsoon period in Bangladesh, observing the water levels in the river is done by all, but particularly by women. Accustomed to spending most of their day, in and around the village - engaged in cultivation, collecting water and fuel wood, they have extensive knowledge and powers of observation to know the slight changes in the movement and the levels of water. Such observations help them to make the decisions, when to leave their huts, and move to safety. Guided by their own judgment, they move to nearby safe places with the cattle, when the water levels rise beyond the safety levels. Once the water levels recede, they come back to continue with their livelihood.

Another study on floods in Jolpur, Bangladesh as discussed by Ariyabando notes that, with floods, most of the drinking water sources go under water. Women take considerable risks to procure drinking water from great distances, walking through chest-high water or swimming to collect fresh and clean water. The study also noted that women use various techniques to take water out of the tube wells so as not to mix it with flood water, and to purify the water, in the absence of fuel wood.45

44

45

http://peoplerelationships.syl.com/battleofsexes/differences Ariyabando, Madhavi Malalgoda, ITDG South Asia, # 05, Lionel Edirisinghe Mawatha, Colombo 5, Sri Lanka

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Subsequently, women also have a much more developed limbic system, which puts them more in touch with their feelings. Because of this, women are able to feel connected to others more easily. It is thought that the limbic system is more developed in women because they have always traditionally cared for children. Because women are more in touch with their feelings, and more adept at communication, women are more likely to want to discuss problems and issues while men generally deal with problems differently. This can be illustrated by the different outlook that men and women typically have towards an activity. Linking this to Bangladeshs case, there was a study in Faridpur, where women prepare a mixture of puffed rice, and dried coconuts for this purpose, secured in appropriate packaging, safe from flood waters. This is a food item which has a long keeping quality, and gives sufficient energy when consumed in small quantities. Women in this area also ensure that their meager belongings such as clothing and bedding are stored in such a way that they can be easily removed when flood waters rise.

Another interesting theoretical foundation of gender science the theory discussed by Rabin in his article in NY Times46 that males are vulnerable because of their chromosomal makeup. Dr. Legato, as quoted by the article, said that women have two X chromosomes, men have an X chromosome and a Y chromosome, and that during implantation in the uterus, a newly fertilized XX entity has a leg up. This newly formed entity can then use this extra X to combat mutations in the chromosome that might be lethal or detrimental. And that might be a reason why females have a more sturdy constitution.47 This chromosomal differences are also believed to be reasons for women to become more resistant to some diseases, as presented in several health studies such as the effects

46

Rabin, Roni. Mens vs. Womens Health? Health Disparities Persist for Men, and Doctors Ask Why. November 14, 2006. NYTimes < http://community.livejournal.com/public_health/384192.html> 47 Ibid.

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of arsenic contamination48 in Bangladesh, where women were found to have fewer lesions than men.

Conclusion: This new perspective in disaster mitigation acknowledges gender as a fundamental organizing principle in social life and hence in all disaster contexts. It contests disaster control strategies that fail to acknowledge the intersectionality of social orders based on gender, class and caste, racial and ethnic relations, age and generations, physical abilities, and other social markers. The shift to gendered perspectives was somewhat late in coming but, to foreshadow our primary conclusion, is here to stay. This is partly the result of the contradictory and complex social changes in a period of increasing globalization and population growth, which make the questions posed by disaster sociology more urgent and the part played by gender relations more self-evident and compelling. We argue here that it makes a difference how and to what extent gender is accounted for.

Women and men thinking about disasters with sensitivity to gender propose new strategies for mitigation, new priorities during disaster relief, new forms of collaboration, and new political coalitions. New questions about peoples relationships with their ecological, social, cultural, and political environments are raised, and new lessons learned from disastrous landslides, earthquakes, floods, and droughts. The question is whether those differences matter. As shared by Dr. Yu Xie, a sociology professor at the University of Michigan who spoke at the conference in Jan. 14, 2006 on diversity in the scientific workforce, "What I can say is that if biology plays a
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Ahsanl, Habibul, et. al . Arsenic Exposure from Drinking Water and Risk of Premalignant Skin Lesions in Bangladesh: Baseline Results from the Health Effects of Arsenic Longitudinal Study. American Journal of Epidemiology Vol. 163, No.12, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. April 2006.

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role, it should interact with the environment . . . so social factors can still make a big difference" It cannot be due to biological factors alone."49

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