ASSIGNMENT 2

OBJECTIVE Implement and test the on-off signalling and more generic type of orthogonal signalling Computing and discuss the difference of BER for BPSK in AWGN and Rayleigh channels

Computing and comparing BER performance for BPSK and BFSK which are antipodal and orthogonal signalling respectively Studying the concept of receive diversity to improve the BER

INTRODUCTION

Bit error rate (BER) of a communication system is defined as the ratio of number of error bits and total number of bits transmitted during a specific period. It is the likelihood that a single error bit will occur within received bits, independent of rate of transmission. There are many ways of reducing BER. Here, we focus on channel coding techniques. A channel in mobile communications can be simulated in many different ways. The main considerations include the effect of multipath scattering, fading and Doppler shift that arise from the relative motion between the transmitter and the receiver. In this simulation, we have considered the two most commonly used channels, the Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel where the noise gets spread over the whole spectrum of frequencies and the Rayleigh fading channel. Plus, having multiple antennas at the receiver (receive diversity) improves the BER performance. 1. BER for on-off and orthogonal signalling In this first part a) Root raised cosine pulse To implement the raised cosine response we split the filtering into two parts to create a matched set. When we split the raised cosine filtering in two parts, each part is called the root raised cosine. In frequency domain we take the square root of the frequency response hence the name root raised cosine. The whole raised cosine can be applied at once at the transmitter but in practice it has been found that concatenating two filters each with a root raised cosine response called split filtering works better. The Root Raised Cosine shaping of pulses is also called base band filtering. Comparing this to the raised cosine response, it is just a square root relationship. Each of these square root responses are applied in pairs, and the total response is that of the raised cosine. Comparing the frequency response of root raised cosine to that of raised cosine, we dont see much of a difference except that there is little bit more excursion in root raised cosine response. The time domain function is of course not the square root. The root part applies to frequency domain. If there were no bandwidth limitations, it would be much easier on the receiver if we use a large . But since bandwidth is almost always a limiting resource, the push is on to make as small as possible. In the development of raised cosine signalling we are tacitly assuming that an ideal sampler is sampling the signal. We

assume that we receive one single pulse for a 0 or a 1, which we then shape in to Root Raised Cosine, Raised Cosine pulse.

Figure 1: On-off root raised cosine pulse i) The eye diagram for raised cosine pulse When the input data is random, the eye diagram which consists of many overlapped traces of the signal captures visually all the paths which the waveform takes. Observing the eye diagram, we may see the different behaviour of the pulse shape when the roll factor is varied, o For increasing the margin for error free transmission, the vertical opening of the eye should be more. In the presence of inter-symbol interference, the vertical opening of the eye reduces, thus increasing the probability of error. The ideal sampling instant is the point where the vertical eye opening is maximum Smaller horizontal eye opening means implies more sensitivity to timing errors From the above figures, it can be observed that the horizontal eye opening with = 0.5 is smaller than with =1 because the tails of the raised cosine filter with =1 dies away faster than the case where =0.5. Hence error in timing cause a bigger performance degradation for =0.5 than for =1 scenario. However, the flip side of using =1 is the increased bandwidth required for transmission.

eye diagram with alpha=0.5 1.5

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Figure 2 : Eye diagram for raised cosine pulse with = 0.5 and 1

b) Additive White Gaussian Noise for Binary Signalling

Additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) is a channel model in which the only impairment to communication is a linear addition of wideband or white noise with a constant spectral density and a Gaussian distribution of amplitude. This implies that the channels amplitude frequency response is flat (thus with unlimited or infinite bandwidth) and phase frequency response is linear for all frequencies so that modulated signals pass through it without any amplitude loss and phase distortion of frequency components. The model does not account for fading, frequency selectivity, interference, nonlinearity or dispersion. However, it produces simple and tractable mathematical models which are useful for gaining insight into the underlying behavior of a system before these other phenomena are considered. For white noise Sn(f) = N/2,and optimum filter H(f) is given by,

This is a filter matched to the pulse p (t) q (t). The corresponding is,

Where E p and E q are the energies of p (t) and q (t) respectively. Thus, the error probability or bit error rate is given as,

c) Binary Signalling i) On-off Signalling In the case of on-off signalling, q(t) = 0. Substituting this into above equation yields,

If both symbol m=0 and m=1 have equal probability 0.5, then average bit energy is given by,

Therefore, the BER can be written as,

ii) Orthogonal Signalling In orthogonal signalling, p (t) and q(t) are selected to be orthogonal over the interval (0,Tb).This gives,

On-off signalling is in fact a special case of orthogonal signalling. Two additional examples of binary orthogonal pulses are shown in figure 3.Assuming 1 and 0 to be equiprobable where the BER is same as for on-off signalling.

Binary orthogonal signals 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 Half-sine pulse Sine pulse

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Figure 3 : Example of orthogonal signal

Figure 4: Orthogonal Modulation

d) Discussion For on-off signalling, we use the root raised cosine pulse. For more generic orthogonal pulse, we use the two pulse shapes of length T .Figure 3 above shows these orthogonal pulses. And, figure 5 below displays the measured BER for both signalling schemes against the BER obtained from analysis. Here, we notice that both measured results match the analytical BER.
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Figure 5 : BER for

2. BER for BPSK and BFSK in AWGN channel For analyzing the bit error rate of BFSK and BPSK demodulation, we compare the signaling waveform used by binary FSK when compared with binary PSK. The distance between the energy of the signaling waveform, o o binary phase shift keying (BPSK) is 4Eb (uses antipodal signaling) binary frequency shift keying (BFSK) is 2Eb (uses orthogonal signaling)

Figure 6 : Energy representation of BPSK and BFSK Given that we assumed that S1 and S2 are equally probable, the bit error probability for BPSK is,

. Using similar mathematical formulation used for BPSK, but with the distance between the signals reduced by half, the bit error probability for coherent binary frequency shift keying is

Bit error probability curve for BFSK modulation theory simulation

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Figure 7: BER for BFSK modulation

Bit error probability curve for BPSK modulation theory simulation

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Figure 7: BER for BPSK modulation

From the above graph, to obtain the same bit error rate as BPSK, binary frequency shift keying requires around 3dB more .

3 .BER for BPSK modulation in AWGN and Rayleigh channel. a) Rayleigh channel Rayleigh fading is a statistical model for the effect of a propagation environment on a radio signal. Rayleigh fading models assume that the magnitude of a signal that has passed through such a transmission medium (also called a communications channel) will vary randomly, or fade, according to a Rayleigh distribution which is the radial component of the sum of two uncorrelated Gaussian random variables. i) System model The received signal in Rayleigh fading channel is of the form, , where is the received symbol, is complex scaling factor corresponding to Rayleigh multipath channel is the transmitted symbol (taking values +1s and -1s) and is the Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) ii) The BER for Rayleigh channel

In the presence of channel

, the effective bit energy to noise ratio is is,

. So

the bit error probability for a given value of

where

. , one must evaluate the

To find the error probability over all random values of conditional probability density function of .

over the probability density function

Probability density function of

Thus, the BER is given as, So the error probability is,